Psychology Flashcards
What is Learning Theory?
Learning is defined as a process which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities. Learning theory is from the perspective of behaviourists, exploring the concepts of Classical and Operant Conditioning as well as Observational learning.
What are the elements of behaviour?
There are three elements to behaviour: A.B.C:
- Antecedent: A cue which is an environmental stimulus that exists before the behaviour of interest, these may be internal of external to the subject.
- Behaviour: The behaviour of interest.
- Consequence: a stimulus which follows the behaviour of interest.
What is habituation?
Habituation is where the nervous system learns to ignore a stimulus. Habituation if due to reduced neurotransmitter release by the sensory neurone and relevant interneurones in response to the stimulus (usually tactile). The memory of habituation is distributed across several synapses in the circuit.
What is sensitisation?
Sensitisation is where the nervous system learns to increase the response to a stimulus. This is usually due to a harmful stimulus, leading to greater neurotransmitter release.
What is Classical Conditioning?
Classical Conditioning is the linking of a previously neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus to create a conditioned stimulus to elicit the automatic response.
What are the different stimuli and response terms used when describing classical conditioning?
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response without prior learning.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that, through association with a UCS comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR.
An unconditioned response (UCR) is a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
A conditioned response (CR) is a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
When is classical conditioning strongest?
Classical conditioning is strongest when:
• There are repeated CS-UCS pairings
• The UCS is more intense
• The sequence involves forward pairing (When the UCS is introduced after the CS)
• The time interval between the CS and UCS is short
By what process does classical conditioning become weaker?
The classical conditioning does not last forever; presenting the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the UCS causes the conditioned response to weaken, and eventually disappear. This is a process called extinction.
What is stimulus generalisation?
Stimulus generalisation is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar but not identical. For example, Pavlov’s dog may also respond to a tone. However, the similar stimulus needs to be a similar frequency to the CS.
What is higher order conditioning?
Higher order conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus is associated with another stimulus (previously neutral). For example, Pavlov’s dog may associate a light with the bell.
Describe the basis of Operant Conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that what happens as a result of behaviour (the consequence) will influence the rate of occurrence of that behaviour. If the consequences are positive, the behaviour is likely to be repeated, if the consequences are aversive, it is less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning is behaviour that is learned and maintained by its consequences. The conditioning can be maintained by a reinforcement or punishment.
What is the difference between a reinforcement and a punishment?
A reinforcement is when a response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it.
A punishment is when the response is weakened by an outcome that follows it.
What is the most powerful method for operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement is a much more potent influencer of behaviour compared to punishment. This is because punishment can only make certain behaviours less frequent, while reinforcement can teach new behaviours.
Define and describe the various schedules of reinforcement
A fixed interval schedule is reinforcement that occurs after a fix time. A variable interval schedule is where time interval time varies at random around average.
A fixed ratio interval is where reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses. A variable ratio schedule is where reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, all cantered around a mean.
Describe a cognitive psychologist’s take on learning
Cognitive theorists rejected behaviourism for not paying attention to the internal world of people as active meaning-maker. They argued people are not just passive agents to various environmental reinforcers but highlighted the role of introspection and innate capacity (e.g. for language development).
Define health behaviour
Health behaviour is an activity undertaken by an individual believing himself to be healthy, for the purpose of preventing disease or detecting it at an asymptomatic stage.
Explain the role of health education in disease prevention.
Education has an important role in DISCRETE behaviours such as getting a child vaccinated. However, people need more than knowledge to change habitual lifestyle behaviours. We therefore use a combined approach of education, individualised support, as well as economic and regulatory support.
Why do many unhealthy behaviours become habitual?
due to regular repetition of a cue, a behaviour, and a reward. Unhealthy bevaiours are able to provide positive reinforcement when dopamine is released in the NAcc. And negative reinforcement when avoiding negative emotions while comfort eating.
What are Bandura’s steps in modelling?
- Pay attention to model
- Remember what was done
- Must be able to reproduce modelled behaviour
- If successful or behaviour is rewarded, behaviour is more likely to occur
Describe Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment
His Bobo Doll experiment (1961) showed children could learn to imitate adult behaviour in the absence of reinforcement. Bandura arranged for 24 boys and girls to watch a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. Another 24 children were exposed no a non-aggressive model, and another 24 children not exposed to any model at all. It was found that children who observed the aggressive models made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
Who’s experiment showed that the effect of education on smoking was negligible?
Nutbeam et al (1993)
What did Janis and Fesbach (1953) show?
fear arousal was actually counterproductive when trying to learn a behaviour, as it can lead to denial and avoidance behaviour.
What is the expectancy-value theory?
The expectancy-value theory states that the potential for a behaviour to occur is a function of the expectancy that the behaviour will lead to a certain outcome, and the value of the outcome.
Define self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments
What are the four sources of self-efficacy?
- Experience – the experience of mastery is the most important factor determining a person’s self-efficacy. Success
raises self-efficacy, while failure lowers it. - Modelling - Modelling is experienced as, “If they can do it, I can do it as well.” When we see someone succeeding,
our own self-efficacy increases; where we see people failing, our self-efficacy decreases. - Social persuasion – discouragement is more effective in lowering self-efficacy than encouragement
- Physiological factors - Getting ‘butterflies in the stomach’ before public speaking will be interpreted by someone
with low self-efficacy as a sign of inability, thus decreasing self-efficacy further, where high self-efficacy would lead to interpreting such physiological signs as normal and unrelated to ability.
Outline the Health Beliefs model.
Perceived Threat and Perceived benefits vs costs influences likelihood of behavioural change.
Background variable such as age, personality, knowledge affects above inputs. Also affects perceived susceptibility and perceived seriousness, which affects perceived threat.
Cues to action also affects perceived threat.
Online the Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory states that attitude toward behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, together influence one’s INTENTION of changing behaviour.
The intention and perceived behavioural control will then dictate if one will change behaviour
Outline the Transtheoretical Model of Change
the stages of change, which are: pre-contemplation –> contemplation –> preparation –> action –> maintenance. However, it can lead to relapse, from which one must start over again - but learning from each replace
Define and discriminate between sensation and perception.
- Sensation is the stimulus detection process by which our sense organs respond to and translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.
- Perception is the active process of organising the stimulus output and giving it meaning.
Contrast bottom-up and top-down processing of sensory information.
- Bottom-up processing is a process that consists of recognising and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and constructing a perception of the whole.
- Top-down processing is when prior knowledge, expectations or thoughts act on this information to influence our final perceptual state
Define attention
Attention is the process of focusing consciousness awareness, providing heightened sensitivity to a limited range of experience requiring more intensive processing.
What are the two processes of attention?
- Focusing on a particular aspect
- Filtering out other information
Describe different influences on perception and attention.
- Properties of the stimulus can affect attention, for example, intensity, movement, novelty, contrast and repetition.
- Personal factors can also affect attention such as one’s motives, interests, threats, mood and arousal level.
Describe factors affecting perception of physical symptoms.
- Attention (paying attention will increase its presence in our minds)
- Environment (such as perceived proximity to a threat)
- Expectation
- Emotion
Describe the impact of attentional and perceptual processes on when clinical mistakes are more likely to be made
When:
- The correct response is not the strongest nor the most habitual
- When full attention is not given
- Under stress of anxiety
Describe how the processes of attention can contribute to medical errors
Attention is narrowed when we’re stressed, this is actually beneficial when dealing with emergencies, as the clinician is able to focus their attention solely on the emergency. However, this also means that peripheral information is often ignored, leading to errors.
When does the critical period of language acquision end?
- after age 8
Explain the importance of hemisphere lateralization and the regions of the brain involved in
language
There is hemispheric specialisation for language where the left hemisphere is involved. 95% of right-handed people have left-hemisphere dominance for language. Only 18.8% of left-handed people have right-handed dominance of language.
Define aphasia
Aphasia is a disturbance in formation and comprehension in language.
What are the main types of aphasia?
- Broca’s (expressive) aphasia is characterised by non fluent speech but in tact comprehension.
- Wenicke’s (receptive) aphasia is characterised by problems in comprehending speech, but with fluent meaningless speech.
Where is Broca’a area?
In the frontal lobe
Where is Werkicke’s area?
In the posterior superior temporal gyrus.
Describe the Wernicke-Geshwind model of language
- Sounds are first processed by the auditory cortex which passes its input to..
- Wernicke’s area where the sounds are decoded and comprehended (a similar process occurs for written
words except that in this case, information flows from the visual cortex to the angular gyrus before passing to
Wernicke’s area) - Then, if a response is necessary, Wernicke’s area further translates thought processes into verbal responses
which are transmitted to Broca’s area via the left arcuate fasciculus - In Broca’s area, there are necessary neurons for articulation and complex muscle co-ordination so that the
appropriate spoken language reply can be voiced.
Define the dysexecutive syndrome
Dysexecutive syndrome is a series of symptoms usually resulting from brain damage, which fall into cognitive, behavioural and emotional categories and tend to occur together.
Define temperament
Temperament refers to those aspects of an individual’s personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned.
Describe nature and nurture in developmental psychology
Nature sets out a course via gender, genetics, temperament and maturation stages. Nurture shapes this predetermined course via the environment; parenting, stimulation and nutrition.
Describe the process of reciprocal development
It can take a child about a year to walk, however, babies are able to imitate expressions (e.g. sticking out tongue). Adults respond, imitate, soothe, talk and so the social dance begins. This reciprocal socialisation is actually bidirectional – children socialise the parents just as the parents socialise the children. The behaviours of mothers and infants involve substantial interconnection, mutual regulation, and synchronisation
Explain how parents can provide a supportive environment for development
- Scaffolding
- Reciprocal socialisation
- Providing a stimulating and enriching environment
Define attachment
Attachment is the strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers over the first few years of life.
When does the process of establishing attachment begin?
Before birth
What study looked a child’s attachment to their caregiver?
The Strange Situation case study by Mary Ainsworth et al
Describe the attachment styles
- Secure attachment describes children who sought social reassurance/proximity from the parent in the presence of the stranger, and distress upon separation.
- Avoidant-insecure children showed little exploration and little emotional response to the mother.
- Resistant-insecure children showed little exploration, great separation anxiety, and ambivalent response to mother upon return.
- Disorganised-insecure children showed little exploration and a confused response to the mother.
Describe the stages in Piaget’s stage model of cognitive development
- Sensori-motor: (0-2y) - object permanence develops, child is completely egocentric
- Peroperational: (2-7y) - language is used to represent world. Cannot see different perspectives
- Concrete operational (7-12y): can perform reversible mental operations
- Formal operational (12+): can apply logic more abstractly
Outline cognitive, emotional and relationship changes during adolescence
- Openness to new experiences
- Risk taking
- Social rewards are very strong
- Preferring company of same age
- Emotionality becomes less positive through early adolescence, but level off and become more stable by late adolescence
- Storms and stress more likely during adolescence than rest of the lifespan but not characteristic of all adolescents.
What is the Transactional definition of stress?
Stress is a condition that results when the personal/environmental transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy between the demands of the situation and the coping resources available
What are the strategies in preparing patients for a treatment (reducing stress)
- Increase predictability
- Increase perceived control
- Identify patient coping style
What are the two types of information that can help reduce distress with treatment?
- Procedural information
- Sensory information
Describe the Dual Processing Hypothesis
Giving both sensory and procedural information produced the most impact.
This is because procedural information works by allowing patients to match ongoing events with their expectations, while sensory information works by mapping a non-threatening interpretation on these expectations. This is the Dual Processing Hypothesis (Suls and Wan 1989).
What were the contributions made by Auerbach at al in reducing distress felt by treatment?
Auerbach et al (1983) compared the effect of giving general or specific information about the procedures. Both levels of information produced a similar level of distress, however there is an interaction between the amount of information given and the individual’s coping preference for information. Those that prefer a low amount of information found general information less distressing and those that prefer a high amount of information found specific information less distressing.
Describe the study that showed the effect of perceived control on patient distress.
Langer and Rodin (1976) conducted a study at a nursing home, putting patients into two floors. Patients in Floor 1 could control their leisurely activities, furniture etc., Patients in Floor 2 were given timetables with activities, and had their rooms taken care of. The study found that patients in floor 1 showed greater engagement in activities, had a better well being, and had a lower mortality rate.
Describe the types of COPING strategies
- Problem focused coping is where the efforts are directed in changing the environment in some way or changing one’s actions or attitudes. Examples may be seeking health information, learning procedures, changing behaviour.
- Emotion focused coping is where efforts are directed in managing stress-related emotional responses in order to
maintain one’s morale and allow one to function. Examples include meditation, relaxation, distraction, praying.
What study shows the importance in matching preparation to the patient’s preferred coping style?
A study conducted by Martelli et al (1997) involved surveying patients based on their preference of coping style before they underwent an oral surgery. Before surgery they were given either an emotional or problem focused (or mixed) preparation. Those who’s style was matched experienced less anxiety than those who were not matched.
Describe and give examples of specific considerations for helping children cope with
treatment.
Three steps to prepare children:
- Tell: using simple language, what the procedure will entail.
- Show: the procedure is demonstrated on an inanimate object, a member of staff
- Do: the procedure does not begin until the child understands what will be done.
Outline the ‘Big Five’ trait model of personality.
We have five-factors to our personality:
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extroversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
Describe Spearman’s two factor theory of intelligence
Spearman believed that intelligence involved a GENERAL factor (g) and a SPECIFIC factor. He developed a statistical procedure called factor analysis, which
compared one’s ability to perform in one aspect, to other aspects. He found that people who performed highly in one area, also scored highly in other areas. He named this intelligence general intelligence – concluding there must be a central factor that influence’s one’s ability to perform this way.
Discriminate between crystallised and fluid intelligence
- Crystallised intelligence (Gc) is the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems.
- Fluid intelligence (Fc) is the ability to deal with novel problem-solving situations for which personal experience
does not provide a solution.
How does crystallised and fluid intelligence change with age?
- Crystallised intelligence increases with age, before stabilising.
- Fluid intelligence peaks at around 20 years of age and
steadily declines
What are the factors determining cognitive ability at age 79?
- Cognitive ability at age 11 (59%)
- Physical fitness (17%)
- Social class as an adult (10%)
- Sex (8%)
- APOE e4 (Alzheimer’s gene) (8%)
Define IQ
IQ = mental age/chronological age (x100)
Describe the findings of twin studies on the roles of heredity and environment in intelligence
research.
Genes account for 1/3-2/3 of variation in IQ. However, there is no single intelligence gene. The environment can determine how these genes are expressed and account for 1/3-1/2 of the variation in IQ. Educational experiences are very important here.
What are the gender differences in intelligence
- Men outperform women on spatial, target- directed and mathematical reasoning tasks.
- Women outperform men on perceptual speed, verbal fluency, mathematical calculation, and precise manual tasks.
Describe the autism and asperger’s syndrome ratios of distribution between male and female
Autism has a 4:1 male:female ratio. Asperger’s syndrome has a 9:1 male:female ratio
Define Simon Baron-Cohen’s Systemising and Empathising Quotients
- Empathising consists of being able to infer the thoughts and feelings of others, and having an appropriate emotional reaction.
- Systemising is the drive to analyse or construct any kind of system in order to predict how that system will behave.
How do Simon Baron-Cohen’s Systemising and Empathising Quotients relate to autism?
He found that females had a greater empathising quotient than males, who had a greater empathising quotient than individuals with autism. While males had a greater systemising quotient than females, but those with autism had the greatest systemising quotient.
Outline Kübler-Ross’s Stage Theory model of adjustment to dying
- Denial – they may lie about their situation and tell themselves that this is just temporary and everything will be back to normal.
- Anger – the patient feels generalised rage at the world for allowing this to happen. They may thing it’s unfair that it happened to them.
- Bargaining – They make an attempt to strike bargains with God, spouse, etc.
- Depression – The person is absorbed by intense pain they feel from having their
world be torn apart. They can be overwhelmed by feelings of helplessness. - Acceptance – The loss is accepted, and efforts are made to minimise and coping
with loss.
Explain why stage theories are popular with patients and health professionals
This theory has become embedded in western culture because of it’s linear progression and applicable nature.
What are the criticisms presented by Wortman and Silver to Kubler-Ross’ Stage Theory?
- Distress of depression is inevitable. (only 1/3 of patients actually become depressed or distressed)
- Distress is necessary and failure to experience distress is indicative as pathology. (Not everyone gets distressed)
- The importance of ‘working through’ a loss (Little evidence that this is actually helpful)
- Expectations of a recovery
(Some people don’t necessarily reach the point of recovery ) - Reaching a state of resolution (Resolution occurs at different times for different people)
Outline Moo’s Crisis Theory of adjustment
Moos’ Crisis Theory of adjustment postulates that a) illness-related factors, b) background/personal factors and c) physical and social environmental factors influence our coping process and thus the outcome of the crisis.
Define Leventhal’s five dimensions of illness representations.
Leventhal’s Illness representations defines illness representation as a ‘patient’s own implicit, common sense beliefs about their illness’. It has five dimensions:
1. Identity: can be considered the label of the illness and the symptoms the patients view as being part of the illness
2. Cause: the patients’ views about what may have caused their problem, such as genetic factors, family
circumstances, trauma, etc.
3. Consequences: include the effects the clients are expecting from their illness and their views on the outcome
4. Time line: the clients’ view about how long their problem will last and whether it is seen as acute, chronic or
episodic
5. Curability/controllability: the patients’ expectations as they recover from or control the
illness
Define attitude
An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation towards a stimulus such as a person, object, action or concept.
What are our sources of cognitive dissonance?
- Belief discontinuance (information presented that contradicts beliefs)
- Free choice (people think of the positive aspects of the choice they have taken)
- Hypocrisy
- Induced compliance (people act in opposition to their beliefs for no reason)
When are the types of framing more effective?
- Loss-framed strategies are effective if we want people to take up behaviour aimed at detecting health problems
- Gain-framed strategies are effective if we want people to take up behaviour to promote health
Define stereotype
A generalisation made about a group of people
Define prejudice
A negative prejudgement of a group of people or its individual members
What is social loafing?
The tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group than when working alone
When is social loafing most likely to occur?
- When they believe they are not being monitored
- When they expect others to put more effort in
- If the task/goal has less value to the individual
- general low motivation
Define conformity
It is the adjustment of behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs to a group standard.
What factors affect conformity
- Size of the group
- Presence of a dissenter
- Culture (more common in collectivistic cultures
- Unanimity
- Cohesion
- Status
- Public response
- Lack of prior commitment
Describe the famous experiment done on group conformity
Asch conducted an experiment where they placed a subject in a room of confederates and asked to match a line to either A, B or C. Even through the subject knew the answer, 1/3 of them conformed to the group.
Who conducted the famous experiment to show the power of authority?
Milgram
What factors influence obedience? (Milligram’s experiment)
- Remoteness of the victim
- Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure
- Diffusion of responsibility
NOT one’s personal characteristics
What is groupthink?
When individuals in a group suspend critical thinking because they strive to seek agreement
Define the bystander effect
The bystander effect is the presence of multiple bystanders inhibiting each person’s tendency to help due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility
What was the five-step process of the bystander decision process analysed by Latane and Darley?
- Notice the event
- Decide if its an emergency (social comparison)
- Assume responsibility to intervene (diffusion of responsibly)
- Self-efficacy in dealing with the situation
- Decision to help is based on cost-befit analysis of danger
What are the two systems of thinking when making decisions?
- Hot system is: unconscious, fast, automatic, low effort, attenuated by stress, independent from working memory, non-verbal and evolutionarily old
- Cold system is: conscious, controlled, high effort, slow, attenuated by stress, limited by working capacity and linked to language and evolutionarily new.
Define confirmation bias
The focus on information that confirms our initial hypothesis
List the common types of errors made in decision making?
- Confirmation bias
- Anchoring
- Gambler’s fallacy
- Sunk Cost fallacy
- Framing
- Heuristics
Define algorithms
An algorithm is a logical series of steps ti take in order to make a decision most effectively
Define memory
The process used to acquire, store and retain and later retrieve information.
What are the processes memory can be split into?
- Registration
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
What are the classifications of memory?
- sensory memory
- working memory
- long-term memory
What can working memory hold?
7+-2 items.
7 digits
6 letters
5 words
Describe the multicomponent model of working memory
A central executive acts as a supervisory stem, controlling the flow of information to its slave systems: Visio-Spacial sketchpad, Phonological loop and Episodic buffer.
The Episodic buffer integrates this information and provides an interface for long-term memory.
What are the types of long-term memory retrieval mechanisms?
- explicit/declarative (conscious)
- implicit/non-declarative (subconscious)
What are the types of long-term memory?
- Procedural memory (non-declarative)
- Episodic memory (declarative)
- Semantic memory (declarative)
- Autobiographical memory
Define schema
A mental structure that represents some aspect of the world
What are the five ways in which schemas influence memory construction?
- Selection (information that doesn’t fit schema is ignored)
- Abstraction (inclined to remember the overall gist)
- Interpretation
- Normalisation (memories are distorted to fit our schema)
- Retrieval
What did the Eyewitness Testimony experiment show?
The misinformation effect is the distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information
What ways can you commit information to memory?
- Rote learning (least efficient)
- Assimilation into existing schemas, involves deep processing
- Mnemonic devices are artificial structures for reorganising or encoding information to make it easier to remember
- Moving the body
What are the reasons we forget information?
- Ineffective encoding
- Decay theory
- Interference theory (competition for space)
- Encoding specificity principle
Define ‘Adherence’ and ‘Compliance’
- Adherence is the ability to stick to a behaviour such as taking medication
- Compliance is acting according to a request or command
Describe the types of non-adherence
- Unintentional (involves the patient’s ability and resources)
- Intentional (involves patient’s beliefs, and motivations creating a perceptual barrier
What factors affect recall about medical information?
- Anxiety
- Medical knowledge
- Memory impairment
What are the presentation factors to improve medical information recall in patients?
- Amount of information
- Order
- Stressing importance
- Specificity
- Mode of presentation
- Give written information
What model can be used to tailor interventions to increase compliance?
COM-B
- Capacity
- Opportunity
- Motivation
- –> Behaviour
Define stress
Stress can be a stimulus that requires to adapt in some manner as well as a sympathetic adrenergic response.
Describe the General Adaptation Syndrome
Three phases:
- Alarm phase is the immediate activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
- Resistance to stress
- Exhaustion of resources to sustain high levels of cortisol
How can stress lead to illness?
- Behavioural changes such as smoking
- Physiological changes due to high cortisol. Can lead to MI and immunosuppression
Describe the 10 characteristics of a Type A personality
- Time-urgency
- Free-floating hostility
- Hyper-aggressiveness
- Focus on accomplishment
- Competitive and Goal-driven
- Obsessed with Time Management
- Proactive
- Impatient
- Sensitive
- Raised risk of Coronary Heart Disease
What is the Placebo and Nocebo effect?
- Placebo is when no active ingredient is given, but still results in improvement
- Nocebo is when no active ingredient is given, but still results in adverse symptoms
What are the three main symptoms of stress burnout?
- Emotional and Physical Exhaustion
- Depersonalisation
- Reduced Personal Accomplishment
What is the most common mental disorder in Britain?
Mixed anxiety and depression
Give 8 symptoms of a panic attack (4 is needed for a diagnosis)
- Palpitations, pending heart, or accelerated heart rate
- Sweating
- Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
- Trembling/shaking
- Chest pain
- Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded or faint
- Feelings of unreality or detachment from oneself
- Fear of losing control / going cray
What are the features of CBT?
- Focus on problematic beliefs and behaviours
- Goal orientated
- Collaborative
- Brief (8-12 sessions)
- Based on a scientific approach
