Psychology Flashcards
1
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Psychology
A
The science that studies behavior and mental processes
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Theories
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A set of hypothesized statements about the relationships among events
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Pure research
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Research conducted without concern for immediate applications
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Applied research
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Research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems
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Introspection
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Deliberate looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts and emotions
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Structuralism
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The school of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements-sensations, feelings, and images- that combine to form experience
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Functionalism
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The school of psychology that emphasizes the uses of functions of the mind rather than the elements of experience
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Sociocultural perspective
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The view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes
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Emotions
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This field seeks to understand if all people experience emotions the same way or if emotional expressions are universal.
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Reinforced
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A stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response
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Behaviorism
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The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses
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Gestalt psychology
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The school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
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Psychoanalysis
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The school of psychology that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior
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Biological perspective
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The approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures such as the functioning of the brain, the endocrine system, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior and mental processes, on the other
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Cognitive
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Having to do with mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem-solving.
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Social cognitive theorists
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The school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory
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Sociocultural perspective
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The view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes
18
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Gender
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The culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity
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Scientific method
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An organized way of using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge
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Hypothesis
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In psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research
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Correlations
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An association or a relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight or between study habits and school grades
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Selection factor
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A source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study
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Sample
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Part of a population
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Population
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A complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn
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Random sample
A sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate
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Stratified sample
Stratified samplea sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionately in the sample
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Volunteer bias
A source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not
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Case studies
A carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests
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Surveys
A method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior
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Naturalistic observation
A scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments
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Correlational method
A mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases
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Correlation coefficient
A number between +1.00 and −1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables
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Experiment
A scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables
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Independent variable
A condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed
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Dependent variables
A measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable
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Experimental groups
In experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment
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Control groups
In experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment, while other conditions are held constant
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Placebos
A bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine
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Blind
In experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment
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Double-blind studies
A study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received the treatment
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Critical thinking
A way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence
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Neurons
A specialized cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits messages
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Glial cells
Remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system; nourish and insulate neurons; form a fatty, insulating substance called myelin; and play a role in the neural transmission of messages
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Dendrites
Rootlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses, or incoming messages, from other neurons
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Axon
A long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb-shaped structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons
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Myelin
A fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses
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Afferent neurons
Afferent neurons
neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain; also called sensory neurons
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Efferent neurons
Neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands; also called motor neurons
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Polarizes
To ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane
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Resting potential
The electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons
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Depolarized
To reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward zero
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Action potential
The electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron
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All-or-none principle
The fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered
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Refractory period
A phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire
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Synapse
A junction between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another
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Receptor site
A location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions
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Hippocampus
A structure of the brain that is involved in memory formation
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Dopamine
A neurotransmitter that affects the ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning and memory; it is involved in Parkinson’s disease and appears to play a role in schizophrenia
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Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter whose action is similar to that of the hormone epinephrine and that may play a role in depression
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Serotonin
A neurotransmitter involved in emotional arousal and sleep; deficiencies of serotonin have been linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
An inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently helps calm anxiety
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Endorphins
Inhibitory neurotransmitters that occur naturally in the brain and in the bloodstream and are similar to the narcotic morphine in their functions and effects
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Nerves
A bundle of axons from many neurons
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Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system consisting of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
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Somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system with sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the surface of the body
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Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils
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Sympathetic division
The branch of the ANS that is most active during emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety, that spend the body’s reserves of energy
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Parasympathetic division
The branch of the ANS that is most active during processes (such as digestion) that restore the body’s reserves of energy
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Spinal cord
A column of nerves within the spine that transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain and from the brain to muscles and glands throughout the body
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Spinal reflex
A simple, unlearned response to a stimulus that may involve only two neurons
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Gray matter
The grayish neurons and neural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes
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White matter
Axon bundles that carry messages to and from the brain
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Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT)
A method of brain imaging that passes a narrow X-ray beam through the head and measures the structures that reflect the beams from various angles, enabling a computer to generate a three-dimensional image
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
A method of brain imaging that injects a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream and assesses activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of glucose they metabolize
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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
An imaging method that places a person in a magnetic field and uses radio waves to cause the brain to emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which, when the brain is being scanned, indicate brain activity
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Medulla
An oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat, blood pressure, movement, and respiration
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Pons
A structure of the hindbrain involved in respiration, attention, and sleep and arousal
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Cerebellum
A part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination and balance
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Reticular formation
A part of the brain involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
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Thalamus
An area near the center of the brain involved in the relay of sensory information to the cortex and in the functions of sleep and attention
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Hypothalamus
A bundle of nuclei below the thalamus involved in body temperature, motivation, and emotion
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Limbic system
A group of structures involved in memory, motivation, and emotion that forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum
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Amygdala
A part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive responses
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Cerebrum
The large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres
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Cerebral cortex
The wrinkled surface area (gray matter) of the cerebrum
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Corpus callosum
A thick fiber bundle that connects the hemispheres of the cortex
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Somatosensory cortex
The section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected; it lies just behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe
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Motor cortex
The section of cortex that lies in the frontal lobe, just across the central fissure from the sensory cortex; neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked to muscular responses throughout the body
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Aphasia
A disruption in the ability to understand or produce language
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Wernicke’s aphasia
A language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language
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Broca’s aphasia
A language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech
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Epilepsy
Temporary disturbances of brain functions that involve sudden neural discharges
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Glands
An organ that secretes one or more chemical substances such as hormones, saliva, or milk
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Hormones
A substance secreted by an endocrine gland that regulates various body functions
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Endocrine system
The body’s system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release them directly into the bloodstream
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Pituitary gland
The gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic hormone, and other hormones
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Natural selection
The concept that holds that adaptive genetic variations among members of a species enable individuals with those variations to survive and reproduce
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Mutations
A sudden variation in an inheritable characteristic, as distinguished from a variation that results from generations of gradual selection
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Evolutionary psychology
The branch of psychology that studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior
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Instinct
A stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation
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Heredity
The transmission of traits from parent to offspring by means of genes
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Genetics
The area of biology that focuses on heredity
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Genes
A basic unit of heredity, which is found at a specific point on a chromosome
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Chromosomes
A microscopic rod-shaped body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that transmit hereditary traits from generation to generation; humans normally have 46 chromosomes
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DNA
A cronym for deoxyribonucleic acid, the substance that forms the basic material of chromosomes; it takes the form of a double helix and contains the genetic code
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Polygenic
Referring to traits that are influenced by combinations of genes
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Genotype
One’s genetic makeup, based on the sequencing of the nucleotides we term A, C, G, and T
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Phenotype
One’s actual development and appearance, as based on one’s genotype and environmental influences
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Nature
The inborn, innate character of an organism
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Sex chromosomes
NOTES: which determine whether we are female or male.
The 23rd pair of chromosomes, whose genetic material determines the sex of the individual
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Down syndrome
A condition caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and characterized by mental deficiency, a broad face, and slanting eyes
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Monozygotic (MZ) twins
Twins that develop from a single fertilized ovum that divides in two early in prenatal development; MZ twins thus share the same genetic code; also called identical twins
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Dizygotic (DZ) twins
Twins that develop from two fertilized ova and who are thus as closely related as brothers and sisters in general; also called fraternal twins
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Sensation
The stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system
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Perception
The process by which sensations are organized into an inner representation of the world
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Absolute threshold
The minimal amount of energy that can produce a sensation
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Pitch
The highness or lowness of a sound, as determined by the frequency of the sound waves
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Subliminal stimulation
Sensory stimulation below a person’s absolute threshold for conscious perception
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Difference threshold
The minimal difference in intensity required between two sources of energy so that they will be perceived as being different
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Weber’s constant
The fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived
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Just noticeable difference (jnd)
The minimal amount by which a source of energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived
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Just noticeable difference (jnd)
The minimal amount by which a source of energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived
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Signal-detection theory
The view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors
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Signal-detection theory
The view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors
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Feature detectors
Neurons in the sensory cortex that fire in response to specific features of sensory information such as lines or edges of objects
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Sensory adaptation
The processes by which organisms become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude and less sensitive to stimuli that are constant or ongoing in magnitude
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Sensitization
The type of sensory adaptation in which we become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude; also called positive adaptation
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Desensitization
The type of sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to constant stimuli; also called negative adaptation
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Visible light
The part of the electromagnetic spectrum that stimulates the eye and produces visual sensations
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Hue
The color of light, as determined by its wavelength
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Cornea
Transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball
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Iris
A muscular membrane whose dilation regulates the amount of light that enters the eye
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Pupil
The black-looking opening in the center of the iris, through which light enters the eye
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Lens
A transparent body behind the iris that focuses an image on the retina
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Retina
The area of the inner surface of the eye that contains rods and cones
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Photoreceptors
Cells that respond to light
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Bipolar cells
Neurons that conduct neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells
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Ganglion cells
Neurons whose axons form the optic nerve
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Optic nerve
The nerve that transmits sensory information from the eye to the brain
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Rods
Rod-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive only to the intensity of light
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Cones
Cone-shaped photoreceptors that transmit sensations of color
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Fovea
An area near the center of the retina that is dense with cones and where vision is consequently most acute
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Blind spot
The area of the retina where axons from ganglion cells meet to form the optic nerve
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Visual acuity
Sharpness of vision
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Presbyopia
A condition characterized by brittleness of the lens
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Dark adaptation
The process of adjusting to conditions of lower lighting by increasing the sensitivity of rods and cones
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Complementary
Descriptive of colors of the spectrum that when combined produce white or nearly white light
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Mixing Lights
NOTES: When you mix lights of different colors, you obtain lighter colors.
An Additive Process
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Mixing Pigments
NOTES: Here we obtain the results familiar to every child with a box of crayons.
A Subtractive Process
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Afterimage
The lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed
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Trichromatic theory
The theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red light, some to green, and some to blue
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Opponent–process theory
The theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red or green light, some to blue or yellow, and some to the intensity of light
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Trichromat
A person with normal color vision
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Monochromats
A person who is sensitive to black and white only and hence color-blind
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Dichromats
A person who is sensitive to black–white and either red–green or blue–yellow and hence is partially color-blind
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Closure
The tendency to perceive a broken figure as being complete or whole
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Perceptual organization
The tendency to integrate perceptual elements into meaningful patterns
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Proximity
Nearness; the perceptual tendency to group together objects that are near one another
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Similarity
The perceptual tendency to group together objects that are similar in appearance
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Continuity
The tendency to perceive a series of points or lines as having unity
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Common fate
The tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together
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Top-down processing
The use of contextual information or knowledge of a pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern
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Bottom-up processing
The organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or form an image of, the pattern they compose
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Illusions
Sensations that give rise to misperceptions
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Stroboscopic motion
A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession
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Stroboscopic motion
A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession
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Monocular cues
Stimuli suggestive of depth that can be perceived with only one eye
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Perspective
A monocular cue for depth based on the convergence (coming-together) of parallel lines as they recede into the distance
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Texture gradient
A monocular cue for depth based on the perception that closer objects appear to have rougher (more detailed) surfaces
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Motion parallax
A monocular cue for depth based on the perception that nearby objects appear to move more rapidly in relation to our own motion
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Binocular cues
Stimuli suggestive of depth that involve simultaneous perception by both eyes
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Retinal disparity
A binocular cue for depth based on the difference in the image cast by an object on the retinas of the eyes as the object moves closer or farther away
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Convergence
A binocular cue for depth based on the inward movement of the eyes as they attempt to focus on an object that is drawing nearer
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Size constancy
The tendency to perceive an object as being the same size even as the size of its retinal image changes according to the object’s distance
