Psychological Factors and Health

Question 1

Do intra-individual factors influence the stress process?

Answer 1

Yes, some people experience more intense and sustained reactions to stressors than others, which, in turn, influences health.

Question 2

Stress only occurs when something has been…

Answer 2

…appraised as potentially self-threatening.

Question 3

Is appraisal the same as perception?

Answer 3

No, perception happens first and is the perception of the physical features of the stimulus.
Then the appraisal happens, this is an interpretation of the stimulus and how that stimulus may impact on ourselves.

Question 4

Fill the gaps:
Because appraisal is an ______________, psychological factors can influence appraisal, and in turn, influence _____________.

Answer 4

interpretation; stress-response

Question 5

What is hostility?

Answer 5

A psychological trait characterised by patterns of emotions (angry outbursts), cognitions (cynicism, mistrust), and behaviours (aggressive acts).

Question 6

Is there any evidence linking hostility to coronary heart disease?

Answer 6

Yes, hostility is a significant coronary heart disease risk factor as seen in the meta-analysis by Booth-Kewley & Friedman in 1987. Larger effect sizes meant stronger predictor of cardiac outcomes.

Question 7

What is a potential mechanism to explain the link between hostility and coronary heart disease?

Answer 7

Greater sympathetic activity (SAM), leading to hypertension, atherosclerosis, and coronary heart disease.

Question 8

Is there any animal evidence linking hostility to heart disease? If so, explain the study.

Answer 8

Yes, (Manuck, Kaplan & Clarkson, 1983) the angry monkey study. This was quasi-experimental, there was no random assignment; assigned to groups based on monkey’s reaction to stress - some are high reactors and some low reactors. This reaction was to a large monkey glove displaying threatening behaviour.
The monkeys were housed in unstable conditions and given a high-cholesterol diet for 22 months.

Question 9

Explain the results of Manuck, Kaplan & Clarkson, 1983 angry monkey study.

Answer 9

When comparing high and low reactors in terms of heart rate in response to a stressor it was clear that the high reactors had a larger response to threat and their heart rate did not return to baseline as quickly.
At the end of the experiment the coronary arteries were measured. The mean coronary artery atherosclerosis was significantly higher for the high reactors.
This provided animal evidence linking aggressive stress reactivity to atherosclerosis. High reacting monkeys (a correlate of hostility) are at greater risk of Coronary Heart Disease.

Question 10

So, we’ve seen evidence that hostility in animals and humans is associated with a greater SAM response to stress, which may lead to coronary heart disease. How does this link to Sapolsky’s chapter 15?

Answer 10

Animal field research: Baboons who are higher reactors (respond as if everything is a threat) are at greater risk of stress related illnesses because of heightened stress physiology.
Human research:
Type A Personality among cardiovascular patients; upholstery wear-and-tear patterns suggest higher physiological activation.

Question 11

Anxiety disorders are associated with…

Answer 11

…too much sympathetic nervous system activity (SAM system), due to stronger activation and neural connections of the amygdala which heighten perceptions of threat; over time, this over-activation causes stress-related cardiovascular illnesses.

Question 12

The most closely linked personality trait to anxiety and depression is:

Answer 12

Neuroticism

Question 13

What are the big five personality traits?

Answer 13

Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism

Question 14

What negative emotional styles did we cover?

Answer 14

Anxiety and depression.

Question 15

Depression is associated with increased…

Answer 15

…HPA-axis activation (greater glucocorticoids, like cortisol); reflecting a state of giving up or ‘vital exhaustion’; over time, can lead to poorer health, heart disease and stroke.

Question 16

What is a positive emotional style?

Answer 16

The tendency to experience positive emotional states like happy, joyful, relaxed. Also called positive affect.

Question 17

Why does it make sense for the physical changes to occur with different affect?

Answer 17

Negative affect from an evolutionary aspect, signifies that something is amiss. So you need to mobilise or fix something. Strong link to SAM system.
Positive affect has a different evolutionary function. Environment is safe, it’s a good time to build resources, play, explore your area, upskill. Broadens attention. More likely to put energy into cellular repair and reproduction.

Question 18

What did the Fredrickson, Mancuso, Branigan & Tugade (2000) study tell us? Explain the study and results.

Answer 18

This study was about the undoing effect of positive emotions. Students were put under a stressor (speech prep) while having blood pressure continuously measured, then watched a film clip of either ocean waves (contentment), puppies (amusement), boy crying (sadness), or an abstract pattern (neutral).
There were shorter periods of cardiovascular recovery for amusement and contentment groups. They took about 20 seconds shorter to calm their body down to baseline cardiovascular level.

Question 19

What archival study link positive affect to longevity?

Answer 19

A 2010 study found that baseball players who had a smile in their baseball card picture lived for longer. The Duchenne (beaming) smile group differed significantly from the no smile group but not from the slight smile group.

Question 20

Steptoe & Wardle studied longevity and positive emotional style; explain this study and results.

Answer 20

At the beginning of study they measured happiness and unhappiness. The 5 years later they looked at the percentage of people who were alive. There was some evidence (although not a huge difference) that there was a higher survival rate for people with more positive affect.

Question 21

Another study over 13 years comparing positive emotional style to longevity, what were the results?

Answer 21

The same pattern, people who were happier were more likely to be alive after 13 years. 10% difference.

Question 22

Moderators ______ and mediators _______.

Answer 22

Change; explain

Question 23

To test for mediation there are four patterns that need to exist, these are:

Answer 23

1. The predictor must relate to the outcome
2. The predictor must relate to the mediator
3. The mediator must relate to the outcome
4. Including the mediator in the model must reduce the extent to which the predictor relates to the outcome.