Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Flashcards
Who was the first researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour?
Kohlberg.
What did Kohlberg suggest peoples decisions and judgments on issues of right and wrong can be summarised into?
A stage theory of moral reasoning - the higher the stage the more sophisticated the reasoning.
What did Kohlberg base his theory on?
People’s responses to moral dilemmas e.g. the Heinz dilemma.
What have many studies suggested offenders show?
A lower level of moral reasoning.
What did Kohlberg find using his moral dilemmas?
A group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths even after controlling for social background.
What level are offenders likely to be classified at?
The pre-conventional level (stages 1-2) whereas non-offenders have generally progressed to the conventional level and beyond.
What is the pre-conventional level characterised by?
A need to avoid punishment and gain rewards.
What is the pre-conventional level associated with?
Less mature, childlike reasoning.
Why might adults at the pre-conventional level commit crime?
So they can get away with it or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect etc.
What do studied of offenders suggest they are?
More egocentric and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offenders.
What do individuals who reason at higher levels tend to do more of?
Sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours e.g. honesty, generosity and non-violence.
What is level 1 of Kohlbergs model?
Pre-conventional morality.
Level 1 of Kohlbergs model:
What is stage 1 and 2?
Stage 1 - punishment orientation - rules are obeyed to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - instrumental orientation or personal gain - rules are obeyed for personal gain.
What is level 2 of Kohlbergs model?
Conventional morality.
Level 2 Kohlberg’s model:
What is stage 3 and 4?
Stage 3 - ‘good boy’ or ‘good girl’ orientation - rules are obeyed for approval.
Stage 4 - maintenance of social order - rules are obeyed to maintain social order.
What is level 3 of Kohlbergs theory?
Post-conventional morality.
Level 3 of Kohlberg’s model:
What is stage 5 and 6?
Stage 5 - morality of contact and individual rights - rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others.
Stage 6 - Morality of conscience - Individuals have a personal set of ethical principles.
Evaluation of levels of moral reasoning: Research support
Palmer and Hollin compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio moral reflection measure short form. The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group which is consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions.
Evaluation of levels of moral reasoning: Type of offence
Thornton and Reid found people who committed crimes for financial gains were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning unlike those convicted of impulse crimes. Pre-conventional moral reasoning is associated with crimes which offenders believe they have a good chance in evading punishment which isn’t consistent with Kohlberg’s theory.
What are cognitive distortions?
Errors or biases in peoples information processing system characterised by faulty thinking.
What are two examples of cognitive distortions?
Hostile attribution bias and minimalisation.
What is hostile attribution bias?
When someone has a tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people.
What might offenders do which triggers a violent response?
Misread non-aggressive cues.
What did Schönberg and Justye do?
Presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambitious facial expressions. When compared with a control group the violent offenders wee more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile.
Where might the roots of hostile attribution bias be apparent in?
Childhood.
What did Dodge and Frame do?
Showed children a video of an ‘ambiguous provocation’ and children who has been identified as aggressive and rejected before the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than hose classed as non aggressive and accepted.
What is minimalisation?
An attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence and has elsewhere been referred to as the application of a euphemistic label for behaviour.
What do studies suggest about people who commit sexual offences?
They are prone to minimalisation.
What did Barbaree find?
That among 26 incarcerated rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they’d caused the victim.
Cognitive distortion evaluation: Real world application
In cognitive behaviour therapy offenders are encouraged to face up to what they’ve done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. Studies suggest reduced incidence of denial and minimisation in therapy is associated with a reduced risk of reoffending which suggests cognitive distortions has a practical value.
Cognitive distortion evaluation: Type of offence
Howitt and Sheldon gathered questionnaires responses from sexual offenders and found non-contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders which suggests distortions aren’t use the same way by all offenders.
