Psychological explanations: Cognitive Flashcards
Who was the first researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour?
Kohlberg (1968)
Kohlberg (1968) proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in…
a stage theory of moral reasoning
The higher Kohlberg’s (1968) stage of moral reasoning, the more…
sophisticated the reasoning
What did Kohlberg (1968) base his theory for offender behaviour on?
People’s responses to a series of moral dilemmas (the Heinz dilemma)
What did Kohlberg (1968) find about a group of violent youths?
They were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths
True/False: Kohlberg (1968) found that a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths, even after controlling for social background
True
Many studies have suggested that offenders tend to show a higher/lower level of moral reasoning than non-offenders
lower
True/False: There is a link between criminality and level of moral reasoning
True
Which level of Kohlberg’s model are offenders more likely to be classified at?
The pre-conventional level
What are stages one and 2 of Kohlberg’s model characterised by?
A need to avoid punishment and gain rewards
Which stages of Kohlberg’s model are at the pre-conventional level?
Stages 1 and 2
What is the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s model associated with?
Less mature, childlike reasoning
Adults and adolescents who reason at the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s model may commit crime if…
they can get away with it or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect, etc.
Adults and adolescents who reason was this level of Kohlberg’s model may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect, etc?
The pre-conventional level
Studies suggest that offenders are more/less egocentric
More
True/False: Studies suggest that offenders are often more self-centred and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offender peers
True
Individuals who reason at higher/lower levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others
higher
Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more ____________ behaviours
conventional
Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as… (give 2 examples)
Any 2 from honesty, generosity, non-violence, etc.
True/False: Non-offenders have generally progressed to which level of moral reasoning?
The conventional level and beyond
True/False: There is evidence for the link between moral reasoning and crime
True
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared what in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders?
Moral reasoning
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in ___ non-offenders and 126 offenders
332
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and ___ offenders
126
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in which two groups of people?
Offenders and non-offenders
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using which measure?
The socio moral reflection measure
Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio moral reflection measure which contains what?
11 moral dilemma-related questions such as not taking things that belong to others and keeping a promise to a friend
What did Palmer and Hollin (1998) find about the offender group’s moral reasoning?
They showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group
Palmer and Hollin (1998)’s findings were consistent with/contradicted Kohlberg’s predictions
were consistent with
Thornton and Reid (1982) found that people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show…
pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulse crimes (e.g. assault)
Thornton and Reid (1982) found that people who committed what kind of crimes were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulse crimes (e.g. assault)?
Crimes for financial gain
Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which the offender believes they have a good chance of…
evading punishment
True/False: Thornton and Reid (1982)’s findings show that Kohlberg’s theory applies to all forms of crime
False, it shows that it may not
Kohlberg’s theory is useful in that it provides insight into what?
The mechanics of the criminal mind
Kohlberg’s theory highlights that offenders may be more _________ and __________ when it comes to making moral judgements than a law-abiding majority
childlike and egocentric
True/False: Moral thinking is the same as moral behaviour
False, they are different
Moral reasoning of the kind Kohlberg was interested in is more likely used to justify behaviour when?
After it happens
Cognitive distortions
Errors or biases in people’s information processing system
What are cognitive distortions characterised by?
Faulty thinking
True/False: We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour
True
We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour, especially if…
the behaviour was unexpected or out of character
We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour. Research has linked this to…
the way in which offenders interpret other people’s behaviour and justify their own actions
Evidence suggest that a propensity for violence is often associated with the tendency to do what?
Misinterpret the actions of other people
Evidence suggests that a propensity for violence is often associated with the tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people. What does this mean?
To assume others are being confrontational when they are not
Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues. What is this an example of?
Hostile attribution bias
Being ‘looked at’ triggering a disproportionate or violent response is an example of what?
Hostile attribution bias
Jusyte et al. (2014) presented __ violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions
55
Jusyte et al. (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with what?
Images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions
Jusyte et al. (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions and were compared with…
a non-aggressive matched control group
Jusyte et al. (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions and were compared with a non-aggressive matched control group. What did Jusyte et al. (2014) find?
Violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile
Dodge and Frame (1982) said that the roots of hostile attribution bias may be apparent when?
In childhood
What did Dodge and Frame (1982) show children a video clip of?
‘Ambiguous provocation’
Dodge and Frame (1982) showed children a video clip of ‘ambiguous provocation’ where the intention was…
neither clearly hostile nor clearly accidental
Dodge and Frame (1982) showed children a video clip of an ‘ambiguous provocation’. What did they find?
Children who had been identified as ‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’ prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as ‘non-aggressive’ and ‘accepted’
Dodge and Frame (1982) found that children who had been identified as what interpreted the situation they were shown as more hostile?
‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’
Dodge and Frame (1982) found that children who had been identified as ‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’ interpreted the situation as more hostile compared to those classed as what?
‘Non-aggressive’ and ‘accepted’
Minimalisation
Ana attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence
Minimalisation has elsewhere been referred to as the application of what for behaviour?
A ‘euphemistic label’
Burglars may describe themselves as ‘doing a job’ or ‘supporting my family’. What is this an example of?
Minimalisation
Burglars may describe themselves as ‘doing a job’ or ‘supporting my family’ as a way of minimising the…
seriousness of their offences
Studies suggest that individuals who commit which kinds of crime are particularly prone to minimalisation?
Sexual offences
What did Barbara (1991) find among 26 incarcerated rapists?
54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim
Barbara (1991) found among __ incarcerated rapists that 54% denied they had committed an offence at all
26
Barbara (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, __% denied they had committed an offence at all
54
Barbara (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further __% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim
40
To combat minimalisation in the case of offending behaviour, offenders are encouraged to ‘____ __’ to what they have done
‘face up’
To combat minimalisation in the case of offending behaviour, offenders are encouraged to ‘face up’ to what they have done in order to establish a…
less distorted view of their actions
Harkins et al. (2010) suggest that reduced incidence of what is highly associated with a reduced risk of reoffending?
Denial and minimalisation in therapy
Harkins et al. (2010) suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly associated with a reduced risk of what?
Reoffending
‘__________’ of one’s crimes is thought to be an important aspect of rehabilitation
acceptance
Harkins et al. (2010)’s suggestion that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly associated with a reduced risk of reoffending suggests that…
the theory has practical value
What did Howitt and Sheldon (2007) say about cognitive distortions?
It depends on the type of offence
Howitt and Sheldon (2007) gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders. What did they find?
Non-contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders
Howitt and Sheldon (2007)’s findings were in line with/ctrasted what the researchers predicted
contrasted
What is meant by non-contact sex offenders in terms of Howitt and Sheldon (2007)’s research?
Accessed sexual images on the internet
What is meant by contact sex offenders in terms of Howitt and Sheldon (2007)’s research?
Physically abused children
True/False: Howitt and Sheldon (2007) found that cognitive distortions are used in the same way by all offenders
False, they found that they are not
How many cognitive explanations for offending help in reducing reoffending in the long term?
Understanding that offenders minimalism their crimes may be a useful starting point in therapy
Cognitive theories do/don’t help in predicting future offender behaviour
don’t
Why do cognitive theories not help in predicting future offender behaviour?
Just because someone tends to have distorted thinking doesn’t inevitably mean they will become an offender
