Psychobiology Term Test 2 Flashcards
What are Mullerian ducts?
Embryonic structures that develop into female reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, and part of the vagina) in females. In males, these ducts regress under the influence of anti-Müllerian hormone.
What are Wolffian ducts?
Embryonic structures that develop into male reproductive organs (epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles) in males. In females, these ducts regress.
What is Diabetes Mellitus?
A group of diseases characterized by high blood sugar levels due to either insufficient insulin production (Type 1) or insulin resistance (Type 2).
What is Alpha-feto-protein?
A protein produced by the fetal liver, yolk sac, and gastrointestinal tract, which is often measured in prenatal screening to assess for neural tube defects or other fetal abnormalities.
What is Neuropsychology?
A branch of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system affect cognition and behavior.
What is the Corti Block Tapping Task?
A neuropsychological test often used to measure fine motor skills and cognitive flexibility.
What is Mirror Drawing?
A task used to measure motor learning and coordination, where the subject must draw an image while looking at a mirror reflection of their hand.
What is the Morris Water Maze?
A behavioral task used to assess spatial learning and memory in rodents, typically used to study hippocampal function.
What is Behavioral Neuroscience?
A field of neuroscience that explores the relationship between the brain and behavior, studying how neural processes and structures influence behavior.
What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?
A non-invasive imaging technique used to visualize the internal structures of the body, including the brain, using magnetic fields and radio waves.
What is Computed Tomography (CT)?
A medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures, especially useful for visualizing bones and soft tissues.
What is Histology?
The study of the microscopic structure of tissues.
What is Ethology?
The scientific study of animal behavior, especially in natural environments.
What is Compensation in neuroscience?
The process by which one part of the brain takes over the function of another part due to damage or injury.
What is a Stereotaxic Frame?
A device used in neuroscience to precisely position instruments (like electrodes or cannulas) within the brain or other parts of the nervous system.
What is Optogenetics?
A technique used to control cells within living tissue using light, often used in neuroscience to control neurons that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels.
What is Chemogenetics?
A technique similar to optogenetics, but it uses engineered receptors that are activated by small molecules to control cellular activity.
What is Microdialysis?
A technique used to sample the chemical composition of extracellular fluid in tissues, often used in neuroscience and pharmacology to study neurotransmitter levels.
What is Decussation?
The crossing of nerve fibers from one side of the body to the other, such as in the spinal cord or brainstem.
What is Pre-synaptic?
Refers to the neuron that releases a neurotransmitter into the synapse.
What is Post-synaptic?
Refers to the neuron or cell that receives the neurotransmitter after it crosses the synapse.
What is Excitatory Post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?
A temporary increase in the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential due to the binding of excitatory neurotransmitters at the post-synaptic site.
What is Inhibitory Post-synaptic potential (IPSP)?
A temporary decrease in the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential due to the binding of inhibitory neurotransmitters at the post-synaptic site.
What is Spatial Summation?
The process by which multiple excitatory or inhibitory signals from different locations on the dendrites combine to affect the likelihood of an action potential.
What is Temporal Summation?
The process by which multiple excitatory or inhibitory signals from the same location, but spaced closely in time, combine to affect the likelihood of an action potential.
What is a Vesicle?
Small membrane-bound sacs in neurons that store neurotransmitters, which are released into the synapse to transmit signals.
What is an Ionotropic Receptor?
A type of neurotransmitter receptor that, when bound by a neurotransmitter, directly opens an ion channel to alter the electrical properties of the cell.
What is a Metabotropic Receptor?
A type of neurotransmitter receptor that, when activated, initiates a signaling cascade inside the cell without directly opening an ion channel.
What is a Hebbian Synapse?
A type of synaptic plasticity where an increase in the strength of a synapse occurs if both pre- and post-synaptic neurons are activated simultaneously, often summarized as ‘cells that fire together, wire together.’
What is Sensitization?
An increase in the response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, often seen in the context of learning or drug addiction.
What is an Agonist?
A substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking the action of a natural neurotransmitter.
What is an Antagonist?
A substance that binds to a receptor but does not activate it, thereby blocking the receptor from being activated by an agonist.
What is Cross-tolerance?
The phenomenon where tolerance to one substance leads to tolerance to another substance, often due to similarities in the way they affect the brain.
What is Disinhibition Theory?
A theory suggesting that certain substances, such as alcohol, may reduce inhibitory control over behavior, leading to increased impulsivity or risk-taking.
What is Behavioral Myopia?
A theory suggesting that drug use or intoxication leads to a narrowing of attention, making the user focus on immediate consequences and ignore long-term risks.
What is Incentive Sensitization Theory?
A theory of addiction that suggests that repeated exposure to a drug increases the brain’s sensitivity to the drug’s rewarding effects, which can lead to compulsive drug use.
What is Substance Abuse?
The harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, leading to negative consequences such as impaired functioning and health problems.
What is Substance Dependence?
A more severe form of substance use disorder, characterized by physical and psychological dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms.
What is Diablo?
A protein that inhibits apoptosis (programmed cell death) and is involved in the regulation of cell survival and death in the nervous system.
What is Apoptosis?
A process of programmed cell death that occurs in a controlled and regulated manner, often used by the body to eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells.
What did Berthold’s 1849 experiment on roosters demonstrate?
Berthold’s experiment showed that re-implanted testes restored normal male behavior and characteristics, highlighting the importance of testes in male development and behavior.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons, with fast and localized effects.
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers secreted by glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect distant organs, with slower and long-lasting effects.
What is the Aromatization Hypothesis?
It suggests that testosterone is converted into estrogen in the brain during development, responsible for masculinizing the brain and behavior.
What hormone contributes to the masculinization of the brain in utero?
Testosterone, which is converted to estradiol by aromatization.
What is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?
A condition where individuals with XY chromosomes develop as females due to an inability to respond to androgens.
What is Turner’s Syndrome?
A condition in females characterized by a missing or incomplete X chromosome, leading to short stature, infertility, and physical abnormalities.
What is an example of a negative feedback loop in the endocrine system?
The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, where high levels of sex hormones inhibit the release of GnRH and LH.
What are the steps for normal sexual differentiation?
- XY chromosomes trigger testes to produce testosterone. 2. Testosterone is converted to DHT for male genitalia development. 3. Müllerian inhibiting substance causes regression of female reproductive structures.
What are two anatomical differences between male and female brains?
- Male brains tend to be larger than female brains. 2. Females generally have a larger corpus callosum.
What are fast-acting response pathways during stress?
The sympathetic nervous system releases adrenaline, leading to quick physical responses.
What are slow-acting response pathways during stress?
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis releases cortisol, affecting long-term stress responses.
What can chronic stress lead to?
Chronic stress can lead to hippocampal damage, memory issues, and altered brain structure.
What brain pathway is stimulated in self-stimulation studies?
The mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which increases rewarding behaviors.
What is Transmagnetic Stimulation (TMS)?
TMS uses magnetic fields to stimulate specific brain areas, used for treating depression and studying brain function.
Limitations include inability to reach deep brain regions and temporary effects.
What is the Kyoto/SHR rat model used for?
The SHR rat is used to study hyperactivity and attention-deficit disorders, often in ADHD research.
What ions are involved in resting membrane potential?
High Na+ concentration outside the cell and K+ inside the cell, with a negative charge inside relative to outside.
What happens when voltage-gated calcium channels open during an action potential?
It leads to the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse by promoting calcium influx.
What are ligand-gated ion channels?
Channels opened by the binding of neurotransmitters, typically located on dendrites and cell body.
What are voltage-gated ion channels?
Channels opened by changes in membrane potential, found along the axon.
What is the difference between post-synaptic potentials and action potentials?
Post-synaptic potentials (PSPs) are small, graded changes in membrane potential, while action potentials are large, all-or-nothing electrical signals.
What did the ‘frozen addicts’ reveal about Parkinson’s disease?
They showed that MPTP can damage dopamine-producing neurons, emphasizing dopamine’s role in motor control.
How was acetylcholine discovered as a neurotransmitter?
Through experiments showing it could transmit signals between neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
How do neurons terminate communication?
By reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or diffusion of neurotransmitters away from the synapse.
What are the four classes of neurotransmitters?
- Amino acids (e.g., glutamate, GABA) 2. Monoamines (e.g., dopamine, serotonin) 3. Peptides (e.g., endorphins) 4. Acetylcholine.
What are the cholinergic pathways?
Pathways from the basal forebrain to various brain regions.
What are the noradrenergic pathways?
Pathways from the locus coeruleus to the cortex and limbic system.
What are the serotonergic pathways?
Pathways from the raphe nuclei to the brainstem and forebrain.
What are the dopaminergic pathways?
Pathways from the substantia nigra (nigrostriatal) and ventral tegmental area (mesolimbic).
Why is the mesolimbic pathway inaccurately labeled as the reward pathway?
It is more involved in motivation and reinforcement rather than just pleasure.
What protects the brain from harmful substances?
The blood-brain barrier, made of tightly sealed endothelial cells.
Where is the blood-brain barrier compromised?
It is less effective in areas like the area postrema and the pineal gland.
What are the pros and cons of intravenous drug administration?
Fast onset but high risk of overdose.
What are the pros and cons of oral drug administration?
Slow onset but more controlled.
What are the pros and cons of inhalation drug administration?
Fast onset but may harm lungs.
What are the pros and cons of topical drug administration?
Slow, localized effect.
How does the body eliminate drugs?
Drugs are metabolized by the liver and excreted by the kidneys in urine.
What are the three types of drug tolerance?
- Metabolic: Reduced drug metabolism. 2. Cellular: Changes in cellular response to the drug. 3. Behavioral: Learned adaptation to drug effects.
What are the major drug classes?
- Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines) 2. Depressants (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates) 3. Opioids (e.g., heroin, morphine) 4. Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD) 5. Cannabinoids (e.g., marijuana).
What effects do barbiturates have on the brain?
They are sedatives affecting GABA receptors.
What effects do benzodiazepines have on the brain?
They reduce anxiety and also act as GABA receptor modulators.
What effects do antipsychotics have on the brain?
They block dopamine receptors.
What effects do dissociative anesthetics have on the brain?
They block NMDA receptors (e.g., PCP).
What effects do opioid analgesics have on the brain?
They activate opioid receptors for pain relief.
What effects do stimulants have on the brain?
They increase dopamine and norepinephrine activity.
What effects do antidepressants have on the brain?
They increase serotonin and/or norepinephrine levels.
What effects do hallucinogens have on the brain?
They affect serotonin receptors.
What role do dopaminergic pathways play in addiction?
They are central to the reward system and play a key role in addiction.
How do sex differences affect addiction?
Females tend to develop addiction faster than males, possibly due to hormonal differences.
What factors increase vulnerability to addiction?
Genetic factors, environmental influences, and early life stress.
What evidence exists for brain damage from drug abuse?
Chronic drug use can lead to changes in brain structure, such as hippocampal shrinkage and impaired cognitive function.
