psych_105_20140916033229 (2/3) Flashcards
Personality represented in language suggests ___ potential traits.
18000
In personality represented in language, ___ and ___ are at higher levels, making up the core of the personality, while ___ and ___ are at lower levels, making up the rest of personality.
General and abstract, specific and concrete.
Cattell came up with the ___ ___ theory of personality
16-factor.
Eysenck came up with the ___ ___ theory of personality.
Two-factor.
What are the two dimensions of personality in the Two-factor theory of personality?
Extrovert/introvert and emotionally stable/unstable.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality is accepted as it accounts for ___ in personality without overlapping traits.
Variation.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality is accepted as there have been a large number of ___ conducted on it using different kinds of data.
Studies.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality is accepted as it holds across ___ ___. This suggests ___.
Different participants. Universality.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality is accepted as it can be associated with predictable patterns of ___ and ___ outcomes.
Behaviours, social.
The Five-Factor Model of Personality is accepted as it remains ___ with age.
Stable.
Evidence that traits are biological:
Brain damage or changes in brain chemistry can trigger personality changes.
Using heritability coefficients, the average genetic components of personality range from ___ to ___.
0.40-0.60.
Growing up in the same environment does/doesn’t appear to make people more similar.
Doesn’t.
Who made humans observe hyenas and use personality scales to rate them?
Gosling.
What was significant about Gosling’s findings?
He found five dimensions that resembled the Big Five traits.
Eysenck speculated that extroversion and introversion arrises from differences in ___.
Alertness.
Extroverts seek ___ ___, and their reticular formation which controls arousal and alertness is/isn’t easily stimulated.
Social interaction, isn’t.
Introverts seek to avoid ___ ___, and their reticular formation which controls arousal and alertness is/isn’t easily stimulated.
Social interaction, is.
Extroverts perform tasks well in…
Noisy and loud environments.
Introverts perform tasks well in…
Tranquil environments.
What did Gray propose?
The dimensions of extroversion and introversion, as well as neuroticism reflect two basic brain waves.
What are the two basic brain waves proposed by Gray?
Behavioural Activation System (BAS) and Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS).
What did Freud do?
Approached the study of personality by examining the meanings and insights revealed by careful analysis of the blemishes in person’s thought and behaviour (example Freudian slips).
According to Freud, personality is understood as a ___ to the person who owns it because we cannot know our deepest ___.
Mystery, motives.
Psychodynamic Approach
An approach that regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness- motives that can also produce emotional disorders.
Dynamic Unconscious
An active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person’s deepest instincts and desires, and the person’s inner struggle to control these factors.
Experiences shape the ___ before we can even put thoughts and feelings into words.
Mind.
Id
The part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives.
Ego
The component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life’s practical demand.
Superego
The mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercize their authority.
The three systems of mind in Freud’s theory interact and create constant controversy. The dominant system equals the ___ ___.
Personality structure.
Ego and Superego are governed by ___.
Anxiety.
Anxiety is a defense position that keeps unacceptable drives from entering ___.
Consciousness.
Repression
Motivated forgetting.
fMRI has found decreased activity in ___ during repression.
Hippocampus.
Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce activity generated by threats from unacceptable impulses.
Example of defense mechanisms.
Rationalization, reaction formation, projection, regression, displacement, identification, and sublimation.
Psychosexual Stages
Distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures.
What are the psychosexual stages, and when do they occur?
Oral (0-18 monhs), anal (18-36 months), phallic (3-6 years), latency (6-puberty), and genital (puberty onwards).
Laency is somewhat of a ___ phase.
‘Sleeper’.
Deprivation or overindulgence in a psychosexual stage leads to ___.
Fixation.
___ stage is associated with the ___ and ___ complex.
Phallic, Oedipus, Electra.
Our outward present ___ is only the tip of the iceberg.
Personality.
Freud had his patients lie on a couch facing away from him to…
Make them more comfortable telling things to him.
Self-Actualizing Tendency
The human motive towards realizing our inner potential.
What did Rogers come up with?
Unconditional Positive Regard.
Unconditional Positive Regard
An attitude of nonjudgemental acceptance towards another person.
When ___ and our ___ do not match, our true nature and capabilities are less happy.
Goals, lives.
Csikszentmihalyl came up with the idea of…
Flow and peak performance.
Maaslow’s ___ of Needs.
Hierarchy.
Existential Approach
A school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual’s ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death.
Responsibility of having to make free choices causes ___.
Angst.
Engage in Rumination
Superficial answers to deal with the angst.
Security-providing mechanisms can stifle potential for ___ ___.
Personal growth.
Morality Salience Studies
Death versus unpleasant experience. When participants have to think about death, it can prompt individuals to become protective of their family, culture, country, and religion.
Social Cognitive Approach
Views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situation encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them.
Person-Situation Controversy
The question of whether behaviour is caused more by personality or situational factors.
According to the Person-Situation Controversy, a ___ can trump ___.
Situation, personality.
According to the Person-Situation Controversy, people may not act the same across time, but are more likely to act the same in similar ___.
Situations.
Personal Construct
Refers to dimensions people use in making sense of their experience.
What did Kelly suggest about personal constructs?
That people view the social world from differing perspectives and that these views arise through the application of personal constructs.
Outcome Expectancies
A person’s assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behaviour.
Our personality largely reflects the ___ we pursue.
Goals.
Locus of Control Scale
Beliefs translate into individual differences in emotion and behaviour.
If you have an internal locus of control, you believe that you have/don’t have control of your life.
Have.
When you have an internal locus of control, you are less/more able to cope with stress.
More.
Self-Concept
A person’s explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviours, traits, and other personal characteristics.
William James suggested that selves have ___ facets.
Two.
What are the two facets suggested by James?
the “I” that thinks, acts, and experiences the world, and the “Me” that is an object in the world.
What did Markus observe in 1977?
That each person finds certain unique personality traits particularly important for conceptualizing the self.
Self Schemas
The traits people use to define themselves.
Sense of self is largely developed and maintained in relation to ___.
Others.
What did Mead find in 1934?
Things people say about us accumulate and are seen as a consensus held by the “generalized other” and are held as a stable concept of self.
Stability of self concept promotes consistency in ___ across situations.
Behaviour.
Self Verification
The tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept.
Self Esteem
The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self.[
Self esteem is either influenced by being accepted and valued by ___ ___ or from specific ___ ___.
Significant others, self evaluations.
Desire for self esteem- evolutionary perspective.
Argue that we seek high self esteem because we have evolved to seek out belongingness, and high self esteem indicates being accepted.
Desire for self esteem- existential perspective.
Argue that we have a desire for high self esteem to find value in ourselves and escape the anxiety related to recognizing our mortality.
Desire for self esteem- self serving bias.
People’s tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures. Maintaining positive view of self.
Desire for self esteem- narcissism
A trait that reflects a grandiose view of the self combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others.
Medical Model
The conceptualization of psychological disorders as diseases that, like physical diseases, have biological causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures.
Disease
Refers to some deviation from normal body functioning that has undesirable consequences for the affected individual.
Diagnosis
Determine nature of the patient’s mental disease by assessing symptoms.
Symptoms
Behaviours, thoughts, and emotions suggestive of an underlying syndrome.
Syndrome
A coherent cluster of symptoms usually due to a single cause.
__% of the population will develop a mental disorder.
40
DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
DSM-IV-TR
A classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicate how the disorder can be distinguished from similar, other problems.
Disorders are classified as if they were a distinct ___.
Illness.
In order to be classified a mental disorder, a disorder must contain _ elements of diagnosis.
Three.
What are the three elements of diagnosis?
- Disturbances in behaviour, thoughts, or emotions. 2. Significant personal distress or impairment. 3. Internal dysfunction.
Psychological disorders exist along a ___.
Continuum.
To help with distinguishing between normal and abnormal, there is a scale called the ___.
GAF (Global Assessment of Functioning).
The DSM suffers from complications, because diagnostic categories depend on ___ rather than ___ behaviour.
Interpretation, observable.
The DSM suffers from complications, because diagnosis relies on patient ___.
Self-reports.
The DSM suffers from complications, because agreement amongst clinicians can vary depending on the ___ ___.
Diagnostic category.
The DSM suffers from complications as a result of comorbidity, which is…
The co-occurance of 2 or more disorders in an individual.
Causation for mental illness can be ___ or ___.
Internal or external.
Internal causation can be ___ or ___.
Biological or psychological.
Biological Internal Causation
Genetic influences, biochemical imbalances, and structural abnormalities of the brain.
Psychological Internal Causation
Maladaptive learning and coping, cognitive bias, dysfunctional attitudes, and interpersonal problems.
Environmental External Causation
Poor socialization, stressful life circumstances, and cultural and social inequalities.
Diathesis-Stress Model
A theory that suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress. However, heritability does not mean destiny.
Intervention-Causation Fallacy
Involves the assumption that if a treatment is effective, it must address the cause of the problem. However, you could have just addressed a symptom, not the cause.
3 negative consequences of labelling:
Stereotypes, stigma, and seen as a sign of weakness.
3 positive consequences of labelling:
Support, shared experience, and treatment.
__% of people with diagnosable psychological disorders do not seek treatment.
70
Patients who are admitted to psychiatric hospitals are no more likely to be ___ than normal people in society.
Violent.
Label the ___, not the ___.
Disorder, person.
Anxiety Disorder
The class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature.
___ anxiety is normal.
Situational.
Significant comorbidity between anxiety and ___.
Depression.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
A disorder characterized by chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance.
_% of North Americans suffer from GAD.
5
GAD occurs more frequently in ___ economic groups and is twice as common in the ___ gender.
Lower, female.
Evidence that GAD is a result of biochemical imbalances.
Some patients respond to drugs, suggesting neurotransmitter imbalances.
Evidence that GAD is situational and experiential.
Psychological explanations focus on anxiety provoking situations (such as poverty, violence, and discrimination).
Phobic Disorders
Disorders characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations.
Specific Phobia, and female to male ratio.
A disorder that involves an irrational fear of a particular object of situation that markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to function. 4:1 (more likely in women).
Social Phobia, time of emergence, and the percentage of women and men that qualify for diagnosis.
Involves an irrational fear of being publically humiliated or embarrassed. Emerges from adolescence to 25, and 11% of men and 15% of women qualify.
Seligman 1971.
Preparedness Theory.
Preparedness Theory
People are instinctively predisposed towards certain fears.
Example of preparedness theory:
People can be conditioned to fear spiders or snakes, but not flowers or toy rabbits.
Panic Disorder
A disorder characterized by the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror.
Panic Attack
Sudden wave of fear (trembling, nausea, tightening of the chest, heat palpitations, sweating, fear that one is going crazy or about to die).
Agoraphobia
An extreme fear of venturing out into public places. Afraid of having a panic attack in a public place.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
A disorder in which repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviours (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts, interfere significantly with an individual’s functioning.
Medical Model was coined by ___ ___.
R.D. Laing.
Mood Disorders
Disorders that have mood disturbances as their predominant feature.
Major Depressive Disorder
Unipolar depression that is characterized by feelings of worthlessness and lack of pleasure, lethargy, and sleep/appetite disturbances.
Major Depressive Disorder typically lasts __ weeks, and the median lifetime risk is __%.
12, 16.
Response style of women to Major Depressive Disorder:
Accept, disclose, and ruminate about negative emotions.
Response style of men to Major Depressive Disorder:
Deny negative emotions, engage in self distraction (work or drinking alcohol).
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern as a result of reduced levels of light in fall and winter months.
Depression heritability ranges from __-__%
33-45.
Depression is associated with the neurotransmitters of ___ and ___.
Norepinepherine and serotonin.
People that suffer from depression tend to have a ___ cognitive style.
Negative.
Helplessness Theory
Maintains that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal, stable, and global.
Suicide is among the top __ cases of death annually in Canada.
15
Suicide is the ___ leading cause of death for Canadian youth in between the ages 10-24.
Second.
First Nations are - times more likely to commit suicide than non-Aboriginal.
5-7.
Males are more likely to ___ suicides than females, but females are more likely to ___ suicide.
Commit, attempt.
CPR Model for Suicide.
Current Plan, Prior Attempt, and Resources.
Current Plan
To assess urgency, and determine whether or not the person has a plan.
Prior Attempts
To obtain a suicide history, and what happened with their last suicide attempt, and how it was stopped.
Resources
To determine the person’s ability to cope and identify existing or potential supports. Does the client have a support network, contracting.
Contracting
Agreement between a client and clinician based on client’s needs.
Bipolar Disorder
An unstable emotional condition characterized vt cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression).
Features of Bipolar Disorder:
Grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness, racing thoughts, distractibility, reckless behaviours.
Figures that had Bipolar Disorder:
Virginia Woolf, Abraham Lincoln, Ernest Hemingway.
Bipolar Disorder has the ___ rate of heritability at __%.
Highest, 70.
___ helps stabilize depressive and maniac symptoms.
Lithium.
Dissociative Disorders
A condition in which normal cognitive processes are severely disjointed or fragmented creating significant disruptions in memory, awareness, or personality that can vary in length from a matter of minutes to many years.
In DID, the goal is to ___ personalities to be able to deal with the world.
Amalgamate or bring together.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
Characterized by the presence within an individual of two or more distinct identities that at different times take control of the individual’s behaviour.
Dissociative Amnesia
Is the sudden loss of memory for significant personal information.
Dissociative Fugue
Is the sudden loss of memory for one’s personal history, accompanied by an abrupt departure from home and the assumption of a new identity.
Schizophrenia
A disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes: a distorted perception of reality, altered or blunted emotion; and disturbances in thought, motivation, or behaviour.
Two or more of these symptoms must be present for 6 months to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized behaviour or catatonic behaviour, and negative symptoms.
Schizophrenia accounts for __% of all admissions into psychiatric hospitals.
40
India uses a strategy of ___ to deal with schizophrenia.
“Reparenting”.
Schizophrenia has an average concordance rate of __% in identical twins and __% in fraternal twins.
48, 17.
Dopamine Hypothesis
The idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity.
___ environment increased likelihood of developing schizophrenia.
Disturbed.
Personality Disorders
Disorders characterized by deeply ingrained, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that cause distress or impaired functioning.
Controversial, as there is a question of whether personality is a ___.
Disorder.
Barriers to Treatment
Stigma, belief systems, embarrassment, finances, access to clinics or personnel.
Psychotherapy
An interaction between a therapist and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem.
Eclectic Psychotherapy
Treatment that draws on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem, Allows for flexibility.
Psychodynamic Psychotherapies
A general approach to treatment that explores childhood events and encourages individuals to develop insight into their psychological problems.
Psychoanalysis
Assumes humans are born with aggressive sexual urges, repressed during childhood through defensive mechanisms, and bring repressed conflicts into consciousness.
Free Association in developing insight.
Client reports every thought that enters their mind without censorship or filtering.
Dream Analysis in developing insight.
Dreams are metaphors that symbolize our unconscious conflicts and wishes.
Intepretation in developing insight.
Therapist suggests possible meanings and look for signs that the correct meaning has been identified.
Resistance in developing insight.
A reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material.
Transference
An event that occurs in psychoanalysis when the analyst begins to assume a major significance in the client’s life, and the client reacts to the analyst based on unconscious childhood fantasies.
Client with a history of abandonment would be negatively affected if the therapist has to change an appointment, as they believe that the therapist has ___ them.
Abandoned.
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
A form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships.
Behaviour Therapy
A type of therapy that assumes that disordered behaviour is learned and that symptom relief is achieved through changing overt maladaptive behaviours into more constructive behaviours.
Behaviour Therapy is based on ___ and ___ conditioning procedures.
Operant (reinforcement/punishment) and classical (extinction).
Eliminating unwanted behaviour.
Focys on consequences by reinforcing or punishing the events that follow.
Promoting desired behaviour.
Token system gives clients tokens for desired behaviour, that can be traded for reward. However, when positive reinforcement is discontinued, so are behaviours.
Exposure Therapy
An approach to treatment that involves confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in emotional response.
Systematic Desensitization
A procedure in which a client relaxes all the muscles in his or her body while imagining being directly in increasingly frightening situations. Habituation and response extinction.
Cognitive Therapy
A form of psychotherapy that involves helping a client identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, or the world.
Cognitive Restructuring
A therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and prediction that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs.
Mindfulness Meditation
A form of cognitive therapy that teaches an individual to be fully present in each moment, to be aware of his or her thoughts, feelings, and sensations, and to detect symptoms before they become a problem.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
A blend of cognitive and behavioural therapeutic strategies.
CBT can be ___ focused or ___ focused.
Problem, action.
Problem focused CBT.
Address specific problems.
Action focused CBT.
Select specific strategies to address specific problems.
Who came up with the Person-Centered Therapy?
Carl Rogers.
Person-Centered Therapy
An approach to therapy that assumes all individuals have a tendency toward growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist.
Nondirective Treatment
Assumes that individuals are qualified enough to determine their own goals for therapy.
3 basic qualities that the therapist must have in Person-Centered Therapy
Congruence, Empathy, and Unconditional positive regard.
Gestalt Therapy
An existential approach to treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviours, experiences, and feelings to “own” or take responsibility for them.
Couples and Family Therapy
Therapy seeks to address problems that arise from interactions rather than from problems of one individual.
Group Therapy
Therapy in which multiple participants (who often do not know one another at the outset) work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere.
Self-Help and Support Groups
Discussion groups or internet chat groups that are usually led by a peer that has struggled with the particular disorder or difficult life experience.
___ is the opposite of depression, not happiness.
Vitality.
Antiphychotic Medications
Medications that are used to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.
Psychopharmacology
The study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms.
Increase in dopamine causes ___ symptoms, while decreases causes ___.
Positive, negative.
Atypical Antipsychotics
Affect dopamine and serotonin systems (cognitive and perceptual disruptions, and mood disturbances).
Tardive Dyskinesia
Involuntary movement of the face, mouth and extremities.
Antianxiety Medications
Refers to drugs that help reduce a person’s experience of fear or anxiety.
Benzodiazepines
A type of tranquilizer that facilitates the action of the neurotransmitter gabba-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
GABA…
Inhibits certain neurons and produces a calming effect.
Antidepressants
A class of drugs that help lift people’s mood.
Iproniazid
Prevents the monoamine oxidase from breaking down neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine.
Trycyclic
Block the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, which increases the amount of neurotransmitters in the synaptic space between the neurons.
SSRI
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors make more serotonin available in the synaptic space.
Mood Stabilizers
Refers to medications that are used to suppress swings between mania and depression (bipolar).
Common mood stabilizers:
Lithium and Valproate.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
A treatment that involves inducing a mild seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
A treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person’s scalp, which alters neural activity in the brain.
Phototherapy
A therapy that involves repeated exposure to bright light.
Psychosurgery
The surgical destruction of certain brain areas.
Natural Improvements
The tendency of symptoms to return to their mean level.
None Specific Treatment Effect
Occurs when the client of the therapist attributes their improvement to a feature in the treatment, although that feature wasn’t really the active element that caused the improvement.
Placebo
An inert substance or procedure that has been applied with the expectation that a healing response will be produced.
Reconstructive Memory
When a client’s motivation to get well causes errors in the reconstructive memory of the original symptoms.
Outcome Studies
Designed to evaluate whether a particular treatment works often in relation to another treatment or control condition.
Process Studies
Designed to answer questions regarding why a treatment works or under what circumstances a treatment works.
Iatrogenic Illness
Is a disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychological treatment itself.
4 kinds of resilience:
Physical, mental, emotional, and social.
Health Psychology
The subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health.
Cannon 1942.
Voodoo Death.
Voodoo Death
Refers to a theory that physiological response mechanisms, initiated by fear, can precipitate death itself. Fight or flight response.
Stressors
Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well being.
Stress
The physical and psychological response to internal and external stressors (real or perceived).
Holmes and Rahe in 1967 observed that…
Major life changes cause stress and that increased stress causes illness.
What does CUSS stand for?
College Undergraduate Stress Scale.
CUSS was developed by?
Renner and Mackin.
What is the purpose of CUSS?
To illustrate life stress and its cumulative nature.
Stressful events can be ___ or ___.
Adaptive or maladaptive.
Chronic Stressor
A source of stress that occurs continuously or repeatedly.
Environmental Psychology
Refers to the study of environmental effects of behaviour and health.
Learning environments close to the airport.
Higher blood pressure and gave up more easily on difficult problems.
Glass and Singer 1972.
Perceived Control.
Perceived Control
Expecting that you will have control over what happens to you has been found to be associated with effectiveness of dealing with stress.
Another way to describe perceived control.
Internal locus of control.
Fight or Flight Response
An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action.
Order for flight or flight response.
Threat, hypothalamus, pituitary gland (ACTH), adrenal gland (epinephrine and norepinephrine), sympathetic increases and parasympathetic decreases.
GAS stands for?
Generalized Adaptation Syndrome.
Generalized Adaptation Syndrome
A three stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered.
Three stages of GAS.
Alarm phase, Resistance phase, and Exhaustion.
Alarm Phase
The body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to a threat.
Resistance Phase
The body adapts to its high state of arousal to cope with stressors.
Exhaustion
If GAS continues for long enough, resistance depletes and causes damage.
Immune System
A complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of how immune system responds to psychological variables, such as stressors.
Mouth wounds healed faster ___ than ___.
On vacation than during exams.
Friedman and Rosenman
Identified Type A and C Behaviour Patterns.
Type A Behaviour Pattern
Easily aroused, hostile, impatient, sense of urgency, competitive.
Type B Behaviour Pattern
Work steady, enjoy achieving but do not mind losing, reflective and creative.
Which personality type is more likely to suffer from a heart attack?
A.
Primary Appraisal
The interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not.
Secondary Appraisal
Determine whether the stressor is something you can handle or not.
PTSD
A stress disorder characterized by chronic psychological arousal, recurring unwanted thoughts or images of trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic events to mind.
Burnout
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation.
__% of people have felt overwhelmed at one point.
92
Repressive Coping
Avoiding situations of thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint.
Rational Coping
Facing a stressor and working to its outcome.
Three steps to rational coping:
Acceptance, exposure, and understanding.
Reframing
Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat.
What does SIT stand for?
Stress Inoculation Training,
Stress Inoculation Training
A therapy that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation.
Body symptoms of stress.
Muscle aches, back pain, knots in your stomach, sweaty hands, etc.
Relaxation Therapy
A technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body.
Biofeedback
The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over the function.
Why is aerobic exercise beneficial to stress management? (hint: hormone).
Serotonin increases mood.
Situation Management
Involves changing your life situation as a way of reducing the impact of stress on your mind and body.
Social Support
Refers to aid gained through interacting with others.
Social Response to Stress for Women. What hormone is a key factor?
Tend and befriend. Oxytocin is a key factor.
Social Response to Stress for Men.
Isolation.
Somatoform Disorders
The set of psychological disorders in which the person displays physical symptoms not fully explained by a general medical condition.
Hypochondriasis
A psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with minor symptoms and develops an exaggerated belief that the symptoms signify a life-threatening illness.
Conversion Disorder
A disorder characterized by apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary, but that the person experiences as involuntary.
Sick Role
A socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness.
According to Parsons, what are the three components of illness?
Psychological, social, moral.
Optimism tends to be ___ over time.
Stable.
Hardiness is a characteristic of stress-___ individuals.
Resistant.
Commitment
Ability to become involved in life’s tasks and encounters rather than just dabbling.
Control
The expectation that their actions and words have a causal influence over their lives and environment.
Challenge
Undertaking the change and accepting opportunities for growth.
Self Regulation
The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards.
Illusion of Unique Invulnerability
A systematic bias towards believing that they are less likely to fall victim to a problem than are others.
Cognitive Behaviour Theory
If you feel like you are a failure, you will feel sad, depressed.
To get licensure in Alberta, you must have a ___ degree with a major in psychology.
Graduate (masters).
To get licensure in Alberta, must undergo ____ hours under supervision of a licensed psychologist.
1600
Clinical psychologists used to work with ___ ___ ___, while counsellors were like ___ ___, however, the gap is closing.
Diagnosable mental disorders, life advisors.
Mental health is to have ___ in life.
Purpose.
OCD is a ___ to make the world safe for themselves.
Ritual.
Colonialism
Refers to the formal and informal methods that maintain the subjugation or exploitation of indigenous peoples, lands, and resources.
Two Spirit teaching teaches that a healthy community has a whole ___ of people in it.
Spectrum.
Social Psychology
The study of the courses and consequences socially.
Ultra-Social groups are characterized by:
Large groups, splitting up of tasks, come together for the benefit of all.
Aggression
Behaviour whose purpose is to harm another.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
A principle stating that animals aggress only when their goals are thwarted.
Example of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis.
Want oil (goal), oil in another country (frustration), invade country to get oil (aggression).
___ feelings and negative ___ lead to increased aggression.
Bad, affect.
Young men commit __% of murders and __% of violent crimes.
90, 80.
This hormone is correlated with aggression.
Testosterone.
___ can provide good and bad examples for aggression.
Culture.
Cooperation
Behaviour by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit.
Group
A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others.
Deindividualization
A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values.
Diffusion of Responsibility
The tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way.
Altruism
Behaviour that benefits another without benefitting oneself.
Kin Selection
The process by which evolution selects individuals who cooperate with their relatives.
Reciprocal Altruism
Behaviour that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future.
Females are more selective with mates for these reasons:
Only have limited number of eggs, physical cost, impacts ability to make a living.
Female selectivity decreases with:
Access to contraceptives, reproductive rights, financial independence, and communal child rearing styles.
Male selectivity increases with:
A long term relationship.
Situational factors in attraction:
Proximity and Mere Exposure Effect.
Mere Exposure Effect
The tendency for the liking to increase with the frequency of exposure.
Influence of beauty:
More friends, sex, dates, fun, potential attentiveness, social skills.
Characteristics associated with attractiveness
Hourglass figure, symmetry, and maturity.
People are attracted to competence with a bit of ___.
Incompetence.
Probability of marrying before 40 is __% for males and __% for females.
81, 86.
Divorce rates ___ after the first marriage.
Increase (50, 67, 73).
Two types of love:
Passionate and compassionate.
Passionate Love
An experience involves feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction.
Compassionate Love
An experience that involves affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well being.
Social Exchange
The hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits.
Forensic Psychology
How psychology applies to the legal system.
Two types of reasoning:
Hypothetico-Deductive and Inductive.
Two variables in forensic psychology:
Violence and justice variable.
Social Influence
The ability to control another person’s behaviour.
3 Suceptabilities in Social Influence:
Hedonic Motive, Approcal Motive, Accuracy Motive.
Hedonic Motive
People are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid experiencing pain (pleasure speaking).
Example of how tone can influence people’s behaviour.
“Please do not write on walls” vs. “Do not write on walls under any circumstances”.
Example of how culture can influence people’s behaviour.
American students were less likely to give up their students unless everyone had to, while Latino and Asian students gave up their own but did not force others to.
Approval Motive
People are motivated to be accepted and to avoid being rejected.
Norms
A customary standard for behaviour that is widely shared by members of a culture.
Normative Influence
A phenomenon that occurs when another person’s behaviour provides information about what is appropriate (candy at restaurants).
Door-In-The-Face Technique.
A strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence behaviour. Large ask followed by small ask.
Conformity
The tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it.
What did Line Matching find in 1951?
75% of participants conformed to the norm.
Obedience
The tendency to do what powerful people tell us to do.
Milgram’s Obedience Study of 1963
Teacher, learner, and experimenter, where 80% of participants shocked learners even as they screamed, and 62% delivered a voltage high enough to kill.
Accuracy Motive
People are motivated to believe what is right and to avoid believing what is wrong.
Attitude
An enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event.
Belief
An enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event.
Informational Influence
A phenomenon that occurs when another person’s behaviour provides information about what is good or right.
Sense of Entitlement: Rich and Poor.
Rich people feel more entitled than poor people.
Persuasion
A phenomenon that occurs when a person’s attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person.
Two types of persuasion:
Systematic and heuristic.
Systematic Persuasion
Refers to the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason.
Heuristic Persuasion
Refers to the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habits or emotion.
Consistency
People evaluate the accuracy of new beliefs by assessing their consistency with old beliefs.
Cognitive Dissonance
Refers to an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs.
In the turning knobs, the people that were paid less alleviated their ___ ___ by convincing others that they liked the task more than they did.
Cognitive dissonance.
Social Cognition
The process by which people come to understand others.
Stereotyping
The process by which people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which other belong.
Attribution
An inference about the cause of a person’s behaviour.
Two types of attribution:
Situational and dispositional.
Situational Attribution
Behaviour was caused by some temporary aspect of the situation in which it happened.
Dispositional Attribution
Behaviour was caused by an individual’s enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way.
Kelley 1967.
Covariation Model of Attribution.
Three aspects of Covariation Model of Attribution
Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency.
Correspondence Bias
The tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person’s behaviour was caused by the situation.
Actor-Observer Effect
Tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviours while making dispositional attributions for the identical behaviour of others.
Social Psychology
The study of the causes and consequences of sociality.
Aggression
Behaviour whose purpose is to harm another.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
A principle stating that animals aggress only when their goals are thwarted.
Most reliable predictor of aggression is ___.
Gender.
Variation over time and geography shows that ___ can play a role in aggression.
Culture.
Cooperation
Behaviour by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit.
Group
A collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others.
Prejudice
A positive or negative evaluation of another person based on group membership.
Discrimination
Positive or negative behaviour toward another person based on their group membership.
The Prisoner’s Dilemma Game
Cooperation vs. Noncooperation and punishment.
The Wason Card-Selection Task
Ability to detect cheaters that surpasses their capacity for logical reasoning in general.
Ultimatum Game
People will pay to punish someone who has treated them unfairly.
Deindividualism
A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in agroup causes people to become less aware of their individual values.
Diffusion of Responsibility
The tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting in the same way.
Altruism
Behaviour that benefits another without benefitting oneself.
Kin Selection
The process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives.
Recipricol Altrusim
Behaviour that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future.
___ are more reproductively selective than ___.
Women, men.
Mere Exposure Effect
The tendency for liking ton icrease with the frequency of exposure.
Three physical factors that may influence attraction:
Body shape, symmetry, age.
Passionate Love
An experience involving feeligns of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction.
Compassionate Love
An experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well being.
Social Exchange
The hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits.
Comparison Level
The cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserce or could attain in another relationship.
Social Influence
The ability to control another perosn’s behaviour.
Equity
A state of affairsi n whicih the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal.
Social Influence
The ability to control another person’s behaviour.
Hedonic Motive
People are motivated to experience pleasure, not pain.
Approval Motive
People are motivated to be accepted, not rejected, by others.
Accuracy Motive
People are motivated to believe what is right, and avoid believing what is wrong.
Norm
A customary standard for behaviour that is widely shared by members of a culture.
Normative Influence
A phenomenon that occurs when another person’s behaviour provides information about what is appropriate.
Norm of Reciprocity
The unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefitted them.
Door-In-The-Face Technique
A strategy that uses reciprocating concessions to influence behaviour. Big ask followed by small ask.
Asch’s Conformity Study
When presented with a set of answers with one clear answer, but when peers answered incorrectly, the participant was 75% likely to conform and pick an incorrrect answer.
Obedience
The tendency to do what powerful people tell us to do.
Milgram’s Obedience Studies
People obey commands issued by people in power 80% of the time, even if it means killing someone.
Attitude
An enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event.
Belief
An enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event.
Informational Influence
A phenomenon that occurs when a person’s behaviour provides information about what is good or right.
Persuasion
A phenomenon that occurs when a person’s attitudes or beliefs are influenced by a communication from another person.
Systematic Persuasion
The process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason.
Heuristic Persuasion
The process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to emotion or habit.
Foot-In-The-Door Technique
A technique that involves a small request followed by a larger request.
Cognitive Dissonance
An unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs.
Social Cognition
The processes by which people come to understand others.
Stereotyping
The process by which people draw inferences about others based on their knowledge of the categories to which others belong.
Four properties of stereotyping:
Inaccurate, overused, self-perpetuating, and automatic.
3 reasons stereotypes are self-perpetuating:
Perceptual confirmation, self-fulfilling, and subtyping.
Perceptual Confirmation
A phenomenon that occurs when observers perceive what they expect to perceive.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The tendency for people to cause what they expect to see.
Subtyping
The tendency for people who are faced with disconfirming evidence to modify their stereotypes rather than abandon them.
Attributions
Inferences about the causes of peoples behaviours.
Situational Attributions
When we decide that a person’s behaviour was a result of some temporary aspect of the situation he/she was in.
Dispositional Attributions
When we decide a person’s behaviour was caused by his or her relatively enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way.
Three aspects of Covariation Model
Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus.
Correspondence Bias
The tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person’s behaviour was caused by the situation.
Another name for correspondence bias.
Fundamental attribution error.
Actor-Observer Effect
The tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviour while making dispositional attributions for the identical behaviour of others.
Stressors
Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well being.
Stress
The physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors.
Health Psychology
The subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illnesses and the maintenance of health.
Chronic Stressors
Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly.
Environmental Psychology
The scientific study of environmental effects on behaviour and health.
Fight-or-Flight Response
An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action.
General Adaptation Syndrome
A three-stage physiological response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered.
Catecholamines
Biochemicals indicating the activation of emotional systems.
Three Stages to GAS:
Alarm phase, resistance phase, exhaustion phase.
Alarm Phase
Body rapidly mobilizes resources to respond to the threat.
Resistance Phase
Body adapts to its state of high arousal as it tries to cope with the stressor.
Exhaustion Phase
The body’s resistance collapses, and results in damage.
Immune System
A complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.
Lymphocytes
Cells that produce antibodies that fight infection.
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of how the immune system responds to psychological variables.
Who came up with the Type A and Type B behaviour patterns?
Friedman and Rosenman.
Type A Behaviour Pattern
Tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings.
Primary Appraisal
The interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not.
Secondary Appraisal
Determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not.
Difference between threat and challenge.
A threat is something you may not be able to control.
PTSD
Chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic events to mind.
Burnout
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation.
Repressive Coping
Avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint.
Rational Coping
Facing the stressor and working to overcome it.
Three Steps in Rational Coping:
Acceptance, exposure, and understanding.
Reframing
Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat.
Stress Inoculation Training
A reframing technique that helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about the situation.
Relaxation Therapy
A technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body.
Relaxation Response
A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.
Biofeedback
The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function.
Social Support
The aid gained through interacting with others.
Psychosomatic Illness
An interaction between mind and body that can produce illness.
Somatoform Disorders
The set of psychological disorders in which the person displays physical symptoms not fully explained by a general medical condition.
Hypochondriasis
A psychological disorder in which a person is preoccupied with minor symptoms and develops an exaggerated belief that the symptoms signify a life-threatening illness.
Somatization Disorder
A psychological disorder involving combinations of multiple physical complaints with no medical explanation.
Conversion Disorder
A disorder characterized by apparently debilitating physical symptoms that appear to be voluntary, but that the person experiences as involuntary.
Sick Role
A socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness.
Malingering
Feigning medical or psychological symptoms to get what they want.
In Kobasa’s experiment, hardy individuals exhibited ___ and ___.
Committment and Control.
Self-Regulation
The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards.
Psycotherapy
An interaction between a therapist and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem.
Eclectic Psychotherapy
Treatment that draws on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem.
The most widely used approach to psychotherapy is ___ psychotherapy.
Eclectic psychotherapy.
Psychodynamic Psychotherapies
A general approach to treatment that explores childhood events and encourages individuals to develop insight into their psychological problems.
Resistance
A reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material.
Free Association in Psychodynamic Therapy
Client tells every thought that enters their mind, without censorship.
Dream Analysis in Psychodynamic Therapy
Dreams are treated as metaphors that symbolize unconscious conflicts or wishes that contain disguised clues that the therapist can help the client understand.
Interpretation in Psychodynamic Therapy
The process by which the therapist deciphers the meaning underlying what the client says and does.
Analysis of Resistance
In the process of “trying on” different interpretations of the clients’ thoughts and actions, the therapist may find a certain interpretation that the client finds particularly unacceptable. This resistance can be analyzed to confront hidden issues.
Jung and the Collective Unconscious
Culturally determined symbols and myths that are shared among all people that could serve as a basis for interpretation beyond sex or aggression.
Transference
When the analyst begins to assume a major significance in the client’s life and the client reacts to the analyst based on unconscious childhood fantasies.
Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT)
A form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships.
Behaviour Therapy
A type of therapy that assumes that disordered behaviour is learned and that symptom relief is achieved through changing overt maladaptive behaviours into more constructive behaviours.
Token Economy
A form of behaviour therapy in which clients are given “tokens” for desired behaviours, which they can later trade for rewards.
Exposure Therapy
An approach to treatment that involves confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in the emotional response.
Systematic Desensitization
A procedure in which a client relaxes all the muscles of his or her body while imagining being in increasingly frightening situations.
Cognitive Therapy
A form of psychotherapy that involves helping a client identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, and the world.
Cognitive Restructuring
A therapeutic approach that teaches clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs.
Mindfulness Meditation
Teaches an individual to be fully present in each moment, to be aware of his or her thoughts, feelings, and sensations, and to detect symptoms before they become a problem.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
A blend of cognitive and behavioral therapeutic strategies.
Person-Centered Therapy
An approach to therapy that assumes all individuals have a tendency toward growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist.
What are the two well-known types of humanistic/existential therapies?
Person-Centered (humanistic) and Gestalt (existential).
Three basic qualities that need to be exhibited by those who practice person-centered therapy:
Congruence, empathy, and unconditional positive regard.
Gestalt Therapy
An existential approach to treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviours, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them.
Focusing and empty chair technique are characteristics of ___ therapy.
Gestalt.
Group Therapy
Therapy in which multiple participants (who often do not know one another at the outset) work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere.
Antiphyshotic Drugs
Medications that are used to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.
Psychopharmacology
The study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms.
Atypical Drugs
Newer medication.
Typical or Conventional Drugs
Older medication.
Tardive Dyskinesia
A condition of involuntary movements of the face, mouth, and extremities.
Antianxiety Medications
Drugs that help reduce a person’s experience of fear or anxiety.
Most common antianxiety medications are ___, which deal with the hormone ___.
Benzodiazapines, GABA.
What does MAOI stand for?
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor.
Antidepressants
A class of drugs that help lift people’s moods.
Trofranil and Elavil are ___.
Antidepressants.
