psych_104_20140916033210 Flashcards
Learning
Enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and responses that result from prior experience with similar stimuli and responses.
Habituation
The progressive decrease in the vigor of a behavior that occurs with repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus. Happens at the level of the brain, living by an airport.
Sensory Adaptation
Sense cells become less capable of responding. Happens at the level of the senses, walking out of dark movie theatre.
Response Fatigue
Muscles get tired of responding. Happens at the level of the muscles.
Janet Werker
Studied babies and the effect of stimulus on them. With each new stimulus, the baby will look a little less; habituation.
Sensitization
The progressive increase in the vigor of behavior that occurs with repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.
Startle Response
A defensive response that includes a sudden jump and a tensing of muscles in the upper part of the body.
Rats and Startle Response
At 60 dB, rats habituated. At 80, rats sensitized.
Rene Descartes
Dualist, believed in the separation between mind and body.
Swammerdam and Glisson
Discovered there is no animal spirits infused in muscles, just mechanical irritation.
Bell and Megendie
Discovered there are separate neural pathways. Dorsal is sensory, ventral is motor.
Pavlov
Russian physiologists who discovered CC with his dogs. Proved reflexes are not innate.
Edward Twitmyer
Came to same conclusoion as Pavlov at the University of Pennsylvania in 1902.
Classical Conditioning
Unconditional stimulus (food) results in unconditional response (saliva). Third factor, neutral stimulus (bell). Associating unconditional stimulus (food) and conditional stimulus (bell). At some point, bell alone causes unconditional response (saliva).
Second Order Conditioning
Using first conditioned stimulus (bell) to condition another stimulus (light). Example is money.
Extinction
Present the unconditioned stimulus, but not the food. Gradual elimination of a learned response.
Extinction vs. Habituation
With extinction, there is a prior history of conditioning. With habituation, there is not.
Generalization
Response to similar stimuli in similar ways. Baby Albert was afraid of all the things thatl ooked like mice, not just the mice.
Discrimination
Nervous system being able to identify which stimuli are distinct. Tendency to not response to stimuli that are dissimilar.
Biological Preparedness
Propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others. Phobias, human taste aversions. Bitterness is bad, poisonous.
Adaptive Functions
Learning to associate neutral object with negative experience. Red jellybean and chemotherapy.
Sexual Fetishes in CC
Pairing of stimulus with unconditioned stimulus. High heels produce arousal.
Advertising in CC
Neutral product associated with something attractive. Create associations. Burger with attractive woman.
Drug Overdoses in CC
Addicts learn to associate place they shoot up in with getting high. Withdrawal symptoms over, then return to drug. Overdosing with same amounts they have taken before.
Law of Effect
If a stimulus is followed by a response, and the response is followed by a satisfying event, then the connection between the stimulus and response is strengthened. Works conversely with annoying event.
OC vs. CC
OC involves behaviour.
Operant Conditioning
Also known as instrumental learning or instrumental conditioning. Behavior occurs because similar actions in the past produced the same type of outcome. Behavior ‘instrumental’ in response.
Appetitive Stimulus
Nice, good, pleasant stimulus.
Aversive Stimulus
Bad, unpleasant stimulus.
Positive Stimulus
Giving something or obtaining something because of behavior.
Negative Stimulus
Taking something away because of behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
If behavior occurs, appetitive stimulus presented. If Penny does something good, Sheldon gives her a chocolate.
Negative Reinforcement
If behavior occurs, aversive stimulus is witheld. If you do well in school, you don’t have to do chores.
Escape
During aversive stimulus presentation, behavior terminates aversive stimulus.
Positive Punishment
If response occurs, you present the aversive stimulus. If you move, I will hit you.
Negative Punishment
If the response occurs, the appetitive stimulus is witheld. If you do poorly in school, no TV.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio.
Fixed Interval
Every five minutes.
Variable Interval
Every five minutes, on average.
Fixed Ratio
Every tenth time (punch card).
Variable Ratio
Every tenth time, on average (casino).
Shaping
Reinforcement of successive approximation to a desired, instrumental response.
Over Justfication Effect
When external rewards undermine the instrinsic satisfaction of performing a behavior. Elementary school students.
B.F. Skinner
Showed superstition with pigeons. Pigeons got food every 15 seconds regardless, but believed their behavior led to them getting food.
Social Learning
Learning by watching others.
Alberta Bandura
Three models: live, verbal, and symbolic. Adults played with Bobo dolls, children played with Bobo dolls, children modelled after adults.
Memory
The ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.
Photograph vs. Carpentry
Vividness of memory has no relationship to accuracy.
Pichert and Anderson
Reading short story from perspective of homebuyer or robber. Noticed different things (leaky roof vs. stereo, respectively).
Elaborative Encoding
Actively relating new information that is already in LTM. Inner left temporal and lower left frontal lobe.
Visual Imagery Encoding
Storing information by changing into mental pictures. Occipital lobe.
Storage Systems
Sensory, STM, and LTM. Sensory lost quickly, STM few minutes, LTM decays very slowly.
Sensory Memory
Lasts 2 seconds, large capacity, provides glue.
Short Term Memory
Few seconds to a minute, capacity is about 7. Meaningful things allow us to consolidate.
Maintenence Rehersal
Repeating something mentally until you know it.
Working Memory
Active processes involved in maintaining information for short periods of time.
Long Term Memory
Duration is minutes and longer, no known capacity.
Primacy Effect
Tendency to remember intial information.
Recency Effect
Tendency to remember recent information.
Retrieval
Bringing stored information to mind.
Retrieval Cue
Anything associated with information already in LTM that helps bring stored information to mind.
Tulving and Pearlstone
40% vs. 60% recall without and with retrieval cues, respectively.
Encoding Specific Theory
Retrieval cue most effective when it recreates how information was encoded.
Context Dependent Memory
Writing exam in same room.
State Dependent Memory
Writing exam drunk if you learned drunk.
Stroop Effect
Word spells red, but is writtein in blue.
Explicit/Declarative Memory
Awareness. Includes semantic and episodic memory.
Implicit/Non Declarative Memory
Unaware. Includes priming and procedural memory.
Semantic Memory
Memory of facts.
Episodic Memory
Memory for personal life events.
Procedural Memory
Memory for action. Riding a bike.
Priming Memory
Enhanced performance as a result of a recent experience. 12 x 13.
Autobiographical Memory
Memory of episodes and facts of one’s own life. Further back becomes more semantic less episodic. More recent becomes more episodic less semantic.
Flashbulb Memory
Vivid and detailed memory surrounding a highly emotional and personal event.
Eidetic Memory
Photographic memory. Ability to retain images in memory that are near perfect photographic quality.
Elizabeth
Amazing visual memory- however, all experiments were conducted by her husband.
Engram
The physical basis of memory believed to be somewhere in the brain.
Karl Lashley
Looked for memories in specific parts of the brain using rats.
Donald Hebb
“Cells that fire together wire together”.
Hebb Rule
If a synapse becomes active at the same time, a post-synaptic neuron fires, and chemical changes in the synapse strengthen this connection.
Long Term Potentiation
Better neural processing that is a product of strengthening neural connections.
Plasticity
Brain is moldable, parts of it die. Assuming brain is plastic.
Consolidation
Giving brain time to stabilize memory. Sleep is important in this.
Reconsolidation
When you recall something, it is vulnerable to decaying.
Prefrontal Cortex
Working memory.
Hippocampus
Converts STM to LTM.
Cerebellum
Procedural memory, motor control (riding a bike).
Amygdala
Emotional memories. Ability to recognize faces that have emotional meaning to you.
Maguire, Frackowiak, and Firth
Studied taxi drivers under PET scan, describe landmarks they’ve never seen. Hippocampus larger in taxi drivers than normal people.
Radial Arm Maze
Rat put in middle of maze, has to go find food. Go back to venter to go to another arm. May forget which way he came from. Shows long term error.
Morris Water Maze
Milky water, hidden platform. Rat has to find platform or drown. When rat finds it, taken out and put back into the maze again. Eventually rat goes to platform faster, as it remembers.
Forgetting
A failure to remember.
Forgetting Useful
Allows us to forget useless information. Old shopping lists, otherwise we will get confused which list is important.
Reasons for Forgetting
Abnormal and normal.
Abnormal
Motivated and amnesia.
Motivated Forgetting
Repression of memories in order to protect ourselves from memories that are painful or unacceptable to us.
Amnesia
Any partial or complete loss of memory. Retrograde (forgetting everything before) or anterograde (not being able to create new memories).
H.M. and Removed Hippocampus
Had epilipsy, doctors removed hippocampus. STM and LTM affected, but could not convert STM to LTM. Resulted in anterograde amnesia. IQ unaffected, but if distracted, forgot everything.
Normal Forgetting
Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence.
Transience
Forgetting that occurs with passage of time.
Absentmindedness
Forgetting where you put your keys because you weren’t paying attention when you put them down.
Prospective Memory
Teacher asks you to raise hand when picture of dog is shown, you will raise your hand when a picture of a dog is randomly shown.
Blocking
Failure to retrieve information that is available in memory, even if you try to. “Tip of the tongue”.
Misattribution
Donald Thompson accused of rape, girl saw his face on TV and confused his face with her rapist.
Suggestability
Incorporating misleading information from external sources into personal recollections.
Loftus and Palmer
Looked at suggestability- car “contacted” or “hit”. Altered eyewitness testimony.
Bias
When present knowledge, beliefs, or feelings distort our memories.
Hindsight Bias
Believing you could’ve gotten the answer right, after you already know the answer.
Persistence
Remembering things we are trying to forget. Rebecca Black, Friday.
Harvey Milk
First openly gay politician in San Francisco, killed by coworker, who argued he was overcome by emotion.
Emotion
The positive or negative experience associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity.
Functions of Emotion
Autonomic responses, motivation, communication, social bonds, and memory.
Kluver Bucy Syndrome
Neurological disorder that can make us hyper-oral or hyper-sexual. We become less interested in other people.
Multidimensional Scaling
Group of statistical techniques used to identify underlying structures.
Judging Faces
Depends on knowledge and experience, retrospective and memory, distortion, purity, and limited subject pool.
Paul Ekman
Came up with action units and facial musculature as a way of telling emotions.
Gestures
Can be used as emblems (to supplement speech), illustrators (to highlight what you say), or regulators (sustain flow of conversation).
Folk Psychology Theory
Body interprets stimulus, followed by physiological response, then later a change in emotion happens.
James Lang Theory
Eliciting stimulus causes physiological response, and causes feeling later on. However, some physiology does not change emotion (sauna), and physiology does not cause response (blushing does not cause embarrassment).
Cannon-Bard Theory
Physical reaction and emotions happen at the same time.
Two Factor Theory
Your emotion is a product of your physiology and your interpretation of the stimulus. Your experience depends on your interpretation.
Limbic System
Group of structures in the forebrain (hypothalamus, amygdala, cingulate cortex, and hippocampus).
Brain Damage
If the limbic system is damaged, you have a hard time recognizing loved one, as they are not only related to physical features, but also to emotions.
Why Study Happiness
Longevity, health, happiness.
Ways to Study Happiness
Ask, expression, neuroimaging.
Affective Forecasting
Predicting one’s own future happiness.
Expression of Emotion
An observable sign of emotional state.
Disambiguation of Emotion
Can reduce miscommunication through expression of emotions, “that’s a nice dress”.
Universality Hypothesis
Emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone.
Ancestral Remnants of EOE
Ancestors bared their fangs, humans sneer.
Universal Expressions
People who are blind have same expressions. Two day old infants also have same expressions. Different cultures have same expressions.
Emotional Regulation
Cognitive and behavioral strategies we use to influence our own emotional experiences.
Reappraising Emotions
A strategy that involves changing one’s emotional experiences by changing the meaning of the emotion. Telling yourself a scary movie isn’t real.
Display Rules
Norms for control of emotional expression. Intensification and deintensification (scholarship), masking (pretending to be happy), and neutralizing (poker face).
Facial Cues
Controllable, but sincere emotions last longer. Fake expressions are asymmetrical. True emotions appear and disappear smoothly.
Polygraph
Measures physiological changes, based on ideas that there is a reliable index in autonomic nervice system if you are lying. Sweating correlated to lying?
Problems with Polygraph
No consensus on how to use, mixed emotions, and environmental conditions.
Motivation
Phenomenon that affects the nature, strength, or persistence of behavior. Nature (what you do), strength (how hard you try), and persistence (keep trying).
Psychologists Concerned with Motivation
Are subjects motivated? Do they have ulterior motives? Are subjects motivated in the same way they would be in the real world?
Instinct
Any behavioral tendency that is innate.
Instinct Theory
Environmental trigger is required to turn on instinct, otherwise the instinct is dormant.
Female Mice and Instinct
Female rats will kill baby mice until they have their own, at which point they become nurturing. Newborn rats associate smell of mothers with food.
Rooting Reflex
Brushing the cheek of newborn mice will cause them to turn in the direction of the brush.
Optimal Level Theory
Tendency of a body to try to stay at an ideal level.
Drive
Internal state caused by the departure from optimal level. Pushes us to homeostasis. Increases when too little, decreases when too much.
Homeostasis
A tendency of the body to maintain itself in a state of balance.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Psychological, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization. Some categories more important than others.
Triangle of Motivation
The way in which Maslow’s hiearchy of needs is arranged. You only go up levels if the lower level is satisfied (put on own facemask first). Ghandi is an exception.
Stomach Contraction Theory
When stomach walls shrink and touch, it makes you realize you are hungry. However, people that have stomach removed still feel hungry.
Glucostatic Theory
A signal in your brain goes off if you have too much or too little glucose. Orexogenoc signals turn on, anorexigenic signals turn off. However, people with diabetes still crave sugar.
Psychodynamic Theory
Learning that eating food, safety, and warmth are closely connected. Comfort food.
Effect of Stress on Hunger
Rats that had tails pinched ate more than rats who did not have tails pinched.
Anorexia Nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake.Appetite in people with anorexia no different than normal people.
Sex as Motivation
Billions of dollars spent on pornography. “Sex” is fourth most commonly used search word on web, “porn” is sixth.
Biological Causes of Sex as Motivation
DHEA, testosterone. Not estrogen.
Beaumeister, Cantanese, and Vohs
Desired frequency for sex, number of partners, masturbation, willingness to forgo sex, sacrificing resources for sex. Men have stronger desire for sex than woman.
Human Sexual Response Cycle
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
Consciousness
Our subjective expereince of the world and of our own minds.
Levels of Consciousness
Vegetative, sleep, drowsiness, spaced out, attentiveness, focus, mediated absorption.
Intentionality
Directed consciousness here or there. Endogenous and exogenous cues.
Unity
When you’re conscious of something, you can only be conscious of one thing at a time.
Selectivity
Selecting your awareness.
Transience (Consciousness)
Constantly changing, never aware of one thing for long.
Origins of Consciousness
Coordinate, communicate, externally monitor, internally monitor.
Problem of Other Minds
Is blue blue for everyone? Problem when studying consciousness.
Unconsciousness
Domain of the mind that contains sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and memories of which one is unaware.
Freud and the Unconscious
Conscious, preconscious, and cognitive unconscious.
Cognitive Unconscious
Brain’s processes in perception (seeing), memory (retrieving), snap decisions, and priming (walk more slowly when elderly mentioned).
Dualism
Separation between mind and body, physical and psychical causality. However, introspection is unreliable.
Chinese Room Argument
Devised by Searle, attempts to show that AI is not possible.
Epiphenomenon
Mind cannot affect brain in any way, and mind is a byproduct of brain activity, and nothing more.
Split Brain
Creates two consciousnesses- two halves of body acting against each other.
Blind Sight.
See black things but know where most things are.
Somatosensory Cortex
Activating can achieve a certain sensation (tickling foot with feather).
Occipital Lobe
Electrical stimulation can cause sparkles in vision.
Clock and Finger
Subject must look at the clock and see what time he decides to lift finger, at the same time he lifts his finger. Subjects lifted finger 0.2 seconds after finger is lifted. Brain controls consciousness.
Drug
Any chemical that modifies your mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning.
Psychoactive Drug
Chemicals that modify consciousness.
Stimulants
Causes activity in the nervous system. Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, metamphetamine, cocaine, ecstacy. Increased alertness and energy, insomnia, addictive. Euphoria, increased confidence, affression, paranoia.
Opiates
Opium and its derivatives (heroine, morphine, methadone, codeine). Relieves pain, addictive. Feeling of well being, relaxation, lethargy, and stupor. Withdrawal symptoms like flu symptoms.
Hallucinogens
Dream-like state with heightened awareness of sensory stimuli, hallucinations, synesthesia, altered sense of time. LSD, PCP, psilocybin, ketamine. Emotions, bliss to intense fear, altered sensations and perceptions, see things, patterns, colours, appear, or synesthesia.
Depressants
Alcohol, barbituates, benzpdiazepines, glue, gasoline. Depresses activity in the nervous system, slows reactions, poor judgements, addictive.
Marijuana (THC)
Anadamide, impaired motor control and coordination, poor judgement. Euphoria, heightened senses, hunger, laughter, introspective, and sleepy.
Hypnosis
Set of techniques given to people that provide suggestions for alterations in their perception, thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors.
Theories of Hypnosis
Sociocognitive Theory- acting out what you think you’re supposed to be doing. Dissociation Theory- two parts of the brain dissociate from each other. Being absent minded.
Ideomotor Suggestion
Suggesting you will do something.
Challenge Suggestion
Suggesting that you will not be able to do something.
Cognitive Suggestion
Suggestion that your perception is going to change.
What do Hypnotized People Do
Amazing feats, memory, and pain tolerance.
Hypnotized Pople- How Far?
Pretend ruler is gun or knife and “kill”. Subjects did, but they knew gun and knife is fake.
Rowland
Grab angry rattlesnake. Reach into jar of sulfuric acid. Throw sulfuric acid in experiementer’s face. Both control and test subjects did these things, assumed it is not dangerous.
Sleep
A state characterized by a suspension of normal consciousness and electrophysiologically by specific brain waves.
How do we Study Sleep
ElectroEncephloGraph and ElectroOculoGraph.
Insomina
Most common sleep disorder. Waking up few hours into sleep, or not being able to sleep.
Sleep Apnea
Muscles of tongue relax, and cut off air flow. Leads to weight gain, fatigue, inability ton concentrate, irregular heartbeat.
Somnammbulism
Sleep walking. Sign of stress, walking around while asleep.
Narcolepsy
Rapid, sudden onset of sleep. Rapidly fall into REM.
REM Sleep Disorder
Brain doesn’t paralyze muscles during REM sleep. You act out dreams, can be dangerous.
Awake vs. Asleep
When you’re awake, you can be alert and attentive or eyes clsoe and relaxed. During sleep, you can be in non-REM or REM.
Stage 1 Sleep
Drowsy, fade away. Theta waves.
Stage 2 Sleep
Periodic bursts of activity called sleep spindle. K-complex (higher amplitude waves). Theta waves.
Stage 3 Sleep
Moderate sleep, No k complex but has sleep spindles. Delta waves.
Stage 4 Sleep
Delta waves, no sleep spindles.
Stage 5 Sleep
REM sleep, in an 8 hour night, 1 is REM. Brainstem, to thalamus, to occipital lobe.
Restorative Hypothesis
We sleep to conserve calories, which is a result of slowing down of metabolism and body temperature decreasing.
Unlearning Hypothesis
We experience many thigns during the day. This hypothesis tells you which things are safe to unlearn. Sleep is important for consolidation. Randy Gardner went sleep deprived for 264 hours.
Dreams
Imagery that happens during sleep. However, we do not usually remember dreams.
Dreams Are…
Emotional, illogical, sensations, uncritical acceptance, remembering (we rarely remember).
Activation-Synthesis Theory
Wakeful life is ordered, sleeping is just random neural activity.
Visual Perception
Active while you are dreaming, V1 and V2.
Visual Association
V3 and V4 are active.
Brain During Sleep
Prefrontal cortex less active (dreams irrational). Motor cortex and spinal neurons inactive. Amygdala active during nightmares. REM may be stimulations that allow us to challenge the future.
Meditation
A variety of practices that train attention and awareness.
Concentration
Focusing your mind on one thing.
Awareness
Broad in scope, rather than focusing on one thing. Practice being aware of what is going on.
Compassion
Practice generating empathy for others.
Physical Effects of Meditation
Increased blood flow to brain, improved immune function, mediates cortex thinning.
Behavioral Effects
Creativity, empathy, alertness, self esteem, eating disprders.
Emotional Effects
Reduces anxiety, interpersonal problems, drop in recurrence of depression, reduces burn out.
Creswell
27 meditators, those who meditated usually picked happier faces than those who did not meditate.
Near Death Experience
Experiences people have when they come very close to death. No cardiac output, no respiration, fixed and dilated pupils, flat EEG.
Characteristics of NDE
Warping of time, euphoria, awareness of being dead, hearing sounds, out of body experiences, life review, entering a tunnel, light, meeting dead relatives, heavenly or hellish landscapes.
Jill Bolt Taylor
Experienced stroke, had NDE. Lost functioning of left hemisphere, happened slowly. Couldn’t identify difference between body and surrounding space. Strong sense of peacefulness.
Out-of-Brain Theory
Vivid sensory imagery, clear memory, mental clarity, conviction that experience is real, mind separates from body (dualism).
In-Brain Theory
Euphoria (endogenous beta-dorphins). Experience that as euphotia. Odd sensations are acting like crazy to prevent death. White light and tunnel are rods in retina firing like crazy. Experience of all colours is white. Further out there are less rods firing, looks like tunnel. God could be percieved as a result of temporal lobe epilepsy. False memories can account for what you think happened, but did not actually happen.
Iconic Memory
Fast decaying store of visual information. Echoic is sound.
Rehearsal
The process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it.
Chunking
Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters that are more easily held in STM.
NDMA Receptor
A receptor site on the hippocampus that influences the flow of information between neutrons by consolidating the initiation of LTP
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
The idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding context of the situations match.
Retroactive Interference
Information learned later impairs memory for information learned earlier.
Proactive Interference
Information learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired later.
Prospective Memory
Remembering to do things in the future.
Source Memory
Recalling when, where, and how information was formed.
False Recognition
Feeling of familiarity about something that hasn’t been encountered before.
Acquisition
The phase of CC when the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented together.
Spontaneous Recovery
The tendency of a learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period.
Reinforcer
Any stimulus that functions to increase the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.
Punisher
Any stimulus that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.
Intermittent Reinforcement
An OC principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement.
Intermittent-Reinforcement Effect
The fact that operant behaviours that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement.
Latent Learning
A condition in which something is learned but it is not manifested as a behavioural change until some time in the future.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the physical features of the environment.
Diffusion Chain
A process in which individuals initially learn a behaviour by observation, then serve as a model from which others learn the behaviour.
Appraisal
An evaluation of the emotion relavant aspects of a stimulus.
Reappraisal
Changing one’s emotional experience by changing the meaning of the emotion-eliciting stimulus.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify.
Display Rules
Norms for the control of emotional expression.
Motivation
The purpose for or psychological cause of an action.
Hedonic Principle
The notion that all people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain.
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.
Mortality-Salience Hypothesis
The prediction that people who are reminded of their own mortality will work to reinforce their cultural worldviews.
Intrinsic Motivation
A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding.
Extrinsic Motivation
A motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding, but that lead to reward.
Need for Achievement
The motivation to solve worthwhile problems.
Approach Motivation
A motivation to experience positive outcomes.
Avoidance Motivation
A motivation not to experience negative outcomes.
