Psych + Soc Flashcards
What is Weber’s Law?
It describes the linear relationship b/w stimulus intensity and noticing the difference b/w it
JND: smallest difference b/w intensity that can be detected 50% of the time
Absolute Threshold: minimum intensity of stimulus to detect it 50% of the time
What is associated with the vestibular system?
Balance and spatial orientation, operates in the inner ear
What is signal detection theory?
How we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, discerning important stimuli vs. noise
Also includes consideration of individual’s psychological state
Bottom-up vs. top-down processing?
Bottom-up: stimulus/sensory info influences perception
Top-down: background knowledge/context influences perception
What are the Gestalt principles?
Similarity: similar items (by characteristics) are grouped together
Proximity: close together items are grouped together
Continuity:
Closure: gaps between lines are closed, object is seen as a whole
What is the structure of the eye?
Conjunctiva: outmermost layer that light hits first
Cornea: transparent sheet of tissue
Pupil: mini-hole
Lens: bends light onto the retina
Vitreous: jelly substance that maintains pressure
Retina: photoreceptors (made up of fovea/cones and macula)
Sclera: white of the eye, muscle attachment
Choroid: blood vessels
Optic disc: blind spot
What is the mechanism of vision?
Light enters the eye through the pupil then is bent onto the retina by the lens, photoreceptor cells in the retina sends a neural impulse to the brain
What are the photoreceptor cells? Fields of vision?
Rods: responsible for low-light vision
Cones: responsible for color vision (trichromatic theory)
Central field: high in cones so high color and detail acuity
Peripheral field: high in rods so low light and motion detection
What side is vision processed in the brain from the eye?
Left visual field corresponds to right side of the brain and vice versa
What is parallel processing?
Refers to the simultaneous processing of color and motion so we see it all at once
What is the mechanism of sound?
1) sound hits the pinna (outer ear) and enters the auditory canal
2) then hits the tympanic membrane (eardrum) which vibrates the malleus, incus, and stapes
3) which then interacts with fluid and cochlea that propagates signal to brain
What is deafness characterized by?
A problem in the conduction of sound waves to the cochlea then brain
Solved by a cochlear implant that has a microphone and a transmitter to a receiver that stimulates the cochlea
What are the types of somatosensation? And receptors?
Temperature (thermoception), thermoreceptor (hot, cold)
Pressure (mechanoception), mechanoreceptor (sound waves, touch)
Pain (noiception)
Position (proprioception)/balance
Photoreceptor and chemoreceptor
How are smell (olfactory) and taste (gustatory) signals sent to the brain?
The nose contains bundles of nerves that a molecule binds to a specific receptor on that sends a signal
The tongue contains bundles of specific receptors that when bound sends a signal
What are the sleep stages? How long? What are they controlled by? Measurable?
N1 –> N2 –> N3 –> N2 –> REM (dreaming)
In 90 minute cycles
N2 sleep spindles
Controlled by circadian rhythms associated with melatonin (pineal gland)
Sleep debt can be paid back
Measures include cortisol, melatonin, and core body temp
What are some examples of depressants? Opiates? Stimulants? Hallucinogens? How does the brain function with continued use?
Depressants: suppress neural activity (GABA is inhibitory)
- alcohol
- barbituates (lower anxiety and make you sleepy)
- benzos (lower anxiety and make you sleepy)
Opiates: act on endorphin receptors to simulate euphoria
- heroine
- morphine
Stimulants: intensify neural activity (Glutamate is excitatory)
- caffeine
- nicotine
- cocaine
- amphetamines
Hallucinogens
- ecstacy
- LSD
- weed
Brain starts to anticipate drug use and compensates to try to maintain homeostasis
What are the routes of drug use?
Oral -- Slower Inhalation -- Faster IV -- FAST (more addictive) IM Transdermal -- SLOW
What is the reward pathway in the brain?
VTA in the midbrain (dopamineee)
With the amygdala, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens
Tolerance vs. withdrawal? Dependence?
Tolerance: continued use leads to getting used to it so need more to achieve same effect
Withdrawal: a period of not having drug leads to experience opposite/negative symptoms
Combine those with neurochemical changes = dependence
What are the treatment methods for substance abuse?
CBT: focuses on recognizing a problem then developing more positive behaviors and coping strategies
Motivational interviewing: trying to create intrinsic motivation change
Group meetings: AA, NA
What makes it harder to multi-task?
Similar tasks, complex tasks,
What is sensory memory?
Iconic (visual) or echoic (auditory) that only lasts seconds
What is working memory? How many things can be stored?
Visuospatial sketchpad (reading a map), phonological loop (reading/listening), episodic buffer (timeline), and central executive (attention, task switching)
7 +/- 2 pieces of information
Subject to serial position effects (primacy and recency)
What is long-term memory?
Explicit (declarative): facts/events (episodic) or semantic (language)
Implicit (non-declarative): procedural memory (negative priming is associated)
Unlimited storage
What is memory encoding?
Sensory information –> memory
Many strategies like rote rehearsal, chunking, mnemonic devices, self-referencing, spacing
What is memory retrieval? What can influence it?
Memory –> use
Can be influences by priming (unconscious exposure) or contextual cues (environment)
Free recall is the hardest, recognition is the easiest
What is memory reconstructive bias? Confabulation?
Every retrieval is changed in small and not perfect so the brain fills gaps in with potentially wrong information (confabulation)
What is source monitoring error?
A misattribution of a memory to its source
What is flashbulb memory?
Highly vivid emotional memories
What is memory long-term potentiation?
Basically neuroplasticity in how new cells aren’t grown but neuronal connections are just strengthened
What is memory decay and interference?
Decay: when memories aren’t encoded well or retrieved for a while those connections fade
Retroactive interference: new learning impairs old memories
Proactive interference: old memories impairs new learning
What is the effect of aging on memory? Intelligence?
Stable: implicit/non-declarative/procedural memory
Improves: semantic memory, crystallized IQ (accumulated knowledge and verbal skills), and emotional reasoning
Declines: recall, episodic memory, formation of new memories, fluid IQ (abstract and quick reasoning)
What is Alzheimer’s?
An extreme form of dementia characterized by forgetting to the point of interfering with ADL’s progressively worsening brain atrophy from amyloid plaques and neuro-tangles
What is Korsakoff’s?
Memory disorder caused by a Thiamine deficiency and characterized by either retrograde amnesia: can’t recall previous memories or by anterograde amnesia: can’t encode new memories
What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2)
- sensory perception
- object permanence
Pre-operational (2-7)
- symbolic thinking
- egocentric (only think about self)
Concrete-operational (7-12)
- develop conservation
- and empathy
Formal-operational (12+)
- abstract thinking
What are decision making heuristics? Availability? Representativeness? Confirmation bias? Belief Perseverance?
Mental shortcuts taken
Availability: based on using examples that readily come to mind, knowledge/info we have
Representativeness: judge something in relation to a stereotype
Confirmation bias: seeking facts that confirm own position, stronger for emotional things
Belief perseverance: still holding belief even when there is strong evidence to the contrary
What is spreading activation?
A relational way to organize concepts so the activation of one concept pulls all related concepts together too
General intelligence? 8 intelligence? Hereditary genius? Mental age?
General intelligence: there is one intelligence that underlies all cognitive tasks
8 intelligences: 8 different modalities/types of intelligence
Hereditary genius: Some people just have higher human ability that is inherited
Mental age: a comparison of someone’s mental age to their physical/biological age
What is the behaviorist theory of language? Nativist? Materialist? Interactionist? Relativity?
Behaviorist: Skinner, language is learned and conditioned behavior (not born with it)
Nativist: Chomsky, language is innate with a critical period
Materialist: looks at what happens in the brain
Interactionist: Vygotsky, its the interaction between biology and the social to learn language, nature vs. nurture
Relativity: cognition is determined by the structure of a language
How is language lateralized in split-brains?
Language is lateralized to the left so in split brain cases where information is sent to the right it can’t access the left to process the language
What is broca’s area? Wernicke’s area?
Broca: frontal lobe, speech
Wernicke’s: temporal lobe, comprehension
What is the limbic system? Associated structures?
It is responsible for the storage/retrieval of emotional memories and is the emotion/drive center
HIPPO HAT
Hippocampus (memory formation), hypothalamus (endocrine regulation), amygdala (emotional center), thalamus (sensory relay center, except smell)
What is the prefrontal cortex? Where are emotions lateralized?
It is responsible for executive functioning and control
Positive emotions are lateralized to the left
Negative emotions are lateralized to the right
What are emotions made up of? Six universal emotions?
Subjective experiences accompanied by physiological and behavioral (expressive displays) changes
Cognitive component in some theories
Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Emotional experiences are a result of physiological responses
Stimulus –> physio response –> emotion
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
Emotional experiences and physiological changes occur independently and simultaneously
What is the Schacter-Singer/Two-Factor theory of emotion?
Emotional experiences are a result of the cognitive interpretation of physiological changes
Stimulus –> physio response –> cognitive interp –> emotion
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
Optimal performance comes from a state of moderate arousal (not too low or high)
What is stress? Examples?
A strain experienced from a disruption in equilibrium, stressor –> stress reaction
Significant life changes (divorce), catastrophic events (earthquake), daily hassles, ambient stressors (environmental)
What is the appraisal theory of stress?
That stress results less from events and more from the cognitive interpretation of that event
Primary appraisal: presence of a threat/stressor
Secondary appraisal: capability to cope w/
What is the general adaptation syndrome to stress?
1) alarm: stress response activated (low resistance)
2) resistance: too much sustained cortisol release (high resistance)
3) exhaustion: damage from sustained cortisol (low resistance)
What are physical effects of cortisol? Cardiac? Metabolism? Reproductive? Immune?
Increased BP, vascular disease, CAD
Also raises BG so can exacerbate diabetes
Stress response diverts away from reproductive system
Acute inflammation but chronically can suppress immune system
What are the behavioral effects of stress/cortisol?
Can be wide ranging because cortisol receptors on many body structures
Can include anhedonia (lack of pleasure) –> depression, anger, anxiety, addiction
Learned helplessness: results in inability to identify coping mechanisms b/c constant helpless feeling
Afferent vs. efferent neurons?
Afferent neurons are ascending for stimulus
Efferent neurons are descending for response/reflex
White vs. gray matter?
White matter represents myelinated neurons
Grey matter represents the cell body/soma
What are the functions of the frontal lobe? Parietal lobe? Occipital lobe? Temporal lobe? Cerebellum? Brain stem? Cerebrum?
Frontal lobe: includes motor, prefrontal, broca’s area
Parietal lobe: somatosensory
Occipital lobe: vision
Temporal lobe: sound, wernicke’s area
Cerebellum: movement and position coordination
Brain stem: vital functions from midbrain, pons, medulla
Cerebrum: includes thalamus and hypothalamus
What are the important neurotransmitters?
GABA: inhibitory
Glutamate: excitatory
Acetylcholine: muscle contraction
Seretonin: mood regulation
Dopamine: pleasure/reward
What are the different brain “imaging” techniques?
Structural: CT and MRI
Functional: EEG (this is less so imaging)
Both: fMRI (oxygenation), PET (glucose metabolism/radioactive)
What are twin/adoption studies used to study?
Gene-environment interaction b/c with twins (identical: 100%, fraternal: 50%) genetic information is controlled for so if studied in different environments it can yield information
What is the drive-reduction theory to motivation?
That humans seek to maintain homeostasis in drives of warmth, hunger, thirst, arousal etc.
What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
Top
Self-actualization: maximizing potential
Self-esteem: confidence, achievement
Love: and belonging
Safety: health, shelter, employment etc.
Physiological needs: food, water, sleep etc.
Bottom
What is incentive theory of motivation?
Humans seek to maximize external rewards, minimize punishments
It can be associated with community acceptance vs. displeasure
What is the expectancy theory of motivation?
Involves combination of belief in self capability, outcome control, and desirability
What are attitudes? Components?
Learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way
Affective: emotional
Behavioral: towards people and things
Cognitive: thoughts/beliefs
What is the elaboration-likelihood persuasion model?
Central route: quality of argument, good when people are willing and able to pay attention
Peripheral route: superficial characteristics of persuader, good when not paying close attention
What is role-playing in attitude? Foot in the door persuasion?
That people tend to behave consistently with their role
Start with something easy to agree to then increase ask
What is cognitive-dissonance theory?
People strive for harmony b/w their thoughts and actions so when there are conflicting cognitions that leads to discomfort which is relieved by changing attitudes/behaviors
What is Freudian psychoanalytic personality theory? Coping mechanisms?
Personality is shaped by unconscious thoughts, feelings, childhood experiences
Id: the subconcious, more primal desires
Ego: the regulation b/w id and supergo
Siperego: the moral conscience
Projection: of own feelings onto others
Reaction Formation: doing opposite of what they actually feel
Regression: to position of child
Sublimation: diverting impulses to something more productive
What is Carl Rodger’s humanistic theory?
Focus on the inherently good nature of humans with a basic motive to self-actualize with continued growth and congruency b/w self-concept and actions
What is the behaviorist personality theory?
Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns
Operant: rewards/punishments
Classical: stimulus/response
What is the trait personality theory?
Traits are a stable characteristic and predisposition towards a certain behavior
Cardinal: direct all activities and behavior
Central: less dominant and more related to personality
Secondary: situational
What is the Big 5 Model of personality?
Openness to experience Conscientiousness (careful, organized, discipline) Extraversion Agreeableness (kind, appreciative) Neuroticism
What is observational learning? Social cognitive theory?
Social learning, vicarious learning by watching others and modeling their actions (mirror neurons are active in observing and performing behavior)
Social cognitive theory refers to the interaction b/w behavior, self, environment to learn through others
Bandura
What is anxiety? Panic disorder?
Abnormal worry or fear that is either generalized or to some specific stimulus
Panic disorder features attacks with more acute physiological responses
What is somatic symptom disorder?
Excessive anxiety over bodily symptoms
What is bipolar disorder?
A cycling of abnormal moods, usually mania and depression
What are schizoaffective disorders? Neuroleptics?
Results in psychosis from delusions, hallucinations which can cause distress, disability, disorganized thinking/speech/motor behavior, negative symptoms (lack of ability to function normally)
Is associated with reduced cerebral cortex, dopamine, meso-cortical-limbic abnormality
Neuroleptics treat positive symptoms but can enhance negative symptoms like cognitive dulling
What is depressive disorder?
Sense of hopelessness, loss of interest in activities
Is associated with decreased frontal lobe and increased limbic system abnormality
Monoamine hypothesis: multiple neurotransmitters are involved
What is Alzheimer’s?
Progressively worsening memory/motor ability to point of impairing ADL’s
Overall cognitive dysfunction
Is associated with brain atrophy, amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, acetylcholine abnormality
What is Parkinson’s?
Neural and motor abnormalities, tremors
Is associated with loss of dopamine and basal ganglia
What is conformity? Informative influence? Normative influence? Public? Private? What study?
“peer pressure” tendency to bring behavior in line with group norms
Informative influence: when look to group for guidance when unsure
Normative influence: when do what group does out of fear of social rejection
Public: Outwardly change/conform while maintaining core beliefs
Private: Full on change with core beliefs to fit group
Asch study on conformity with the lines
Zimbardo prison experiment on conformity
What is group polarization? Groupthink?
Group polarization: when in groups decision making becomes more extreme
Groupthink: when groups are more concerned w/ harmony than they are of careful analysis
What is obedience? Compliance? Study?
Perform behavior instructed to by authority figure
Compliance is obedience for rewards/punishments
Milgram shock study
What is anomie?
A breakdown of social bonds in an individual with community
What are experimental demand characteristics/experimenter effects?
When the participant behaves how they believe the experimenter wants them to behave in the study
What is deindivuation?
A loss of sense of self often in a crowd that cancels self-identity
What is the bystander effect?
The more people there are the less likely someone is to help b/c of diffusion of responsibility
What is social facilitation?
Refers to how the presence of others can increase arousal and affect performance on tasks
Improves performance on simple tasks, hinders performance of complex tasks
What is social loafing?
Refers to how people put forth less effort when in a group versus individually
What is socialization?
The process of learning how to interact w/ others, the world, norms etc.
Agents include family, school, peers, media etc.
What are norms? The four types/levels?
Standards for what behaviors are acceptable and not
Least bad:
Folkways: common rules/manners to follow
Mores: based on moral value/belief, some reaction if violated
Law: have more formal consequences
Taboos: completely wrong, has legal and social consequences
Most bad
What is deviance? Differential association theory? Labeling theory? Strain theory?
When a norm is violated (not necessarily bad, there can be positive deviance)
Differential association: deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure, stronger the relationship to deviant person more learned it is
Labeling: behavior is deviant if it has been labeled as so by community, primary: no big consequence, secondary: big consequence
Strain theory: if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal then they may turn to deviant behavior, often a disconnect b/w goal and means to achieve that goal
What is habituation? Dishabituation? Sensitization? Desensitization?
Habituation: decreased response to stimulus over time
Dishabituation: renewed response to previously habituated stimulus
Sensitization: increased response to repeated stimulus
Desensitization: decreased response to sensitized stimulus
What is classical conditioning? Unconditioned stimulus? Unconditioned response? Neutral stimuli?
The pairing of stimulus/response
An unconditioned stimulus is innate/not learned which can cause an unconditioned or innate response to that stimulus
A neutral stimuli is one that causes no response on its own
Conditioning is when a neutral stimuli is paired w/ an unconditioned stimuli to elicit a conditioned response (neutral stimuli is now conditioned)
What is classical conditioning generalization? Discrimination? Extinction? Spontaneous recovery?
Generalization: ability of something similar to conditioned stimuli to elicit the conditioned response
Discrimination: ability to discern stimulus from others, so responding to some stimulus but not others
Extinction: no more conditioned response to a stimulus
Spontaneous recovery: of previously extinct stimulus to elicit a response
What is operant conditioning? Positive/negative reinforcement/punishment? Token economy? Instinctive drift?
The pairing on rewards/punishments to influence behavior
Positive reinforcement: desirable stimulus added
Negative reinforcement: undesirable stimulus removed
Positive punishment: undesirable stimulus added
Negative punishment: desirable stimulus removed
A token economy is where things, often reinforcers, can be exchanged for other things
Instinctive drift: reverting back to innate animal behavior despite conditioning
What are the different reinforcement schedules? Effectiveness?
Most effective:
Variable-ratio: reinforcement comes after a changing number of responses
Variable-interval: reinforcement comes after a changing amount of time
Fixed-ratio: reinforcement comes after a fixed number of responses
Fixed-interval: reinforcement comes after a fixed amount of time
Least effective
Escape vs. avoidance learning?
Behavior is motivated by the threat of something unpleasant
Escape learning when you are already in unpleasant situation and have to find way out
Avoidance learning is to prevent the unpleasant situation before it occurs
Internal vs. external locus of control? What intelligence is self control?
Internal: responsible for self, control own fate/destiny
External: outside forces are responsible for fate
Emotional intelligence associated with delaying gratification
What are Freud’s-Psychosexual stages of development?
Oral (0-1): sticking things in an using mouth
Anal (1-3): butt stuff, toilet training
Phallic (3-6): oedipus (boy to mother)/electra (girl to father) complex
Latent (6-12): socialize w/ same sex peers, cooties
Genital (12+): attracted to opposite sex peers
What are Erikson’s-Psychosocial stages of development?
0-1: trust vs. mistrust 1-3: autonomy vs. shame/doubt 3-6: initiative vs. guilt 6-12: industry vs. inferiority 12-20: identity vs. role confusion 20-40: intimacy vs. isolation 40-65: generativity vs. stagnation 65+: ego integrity vs. despair
What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?
Pre-conventional: more concern for rewards vs. punishments
Conventional: more concern for social order/rules/laws
Post-conventional: more concern for morality/overall good
What are Mead’s I vs. me? Stages?
I: individual response to the attitude of others, understanding of self, spontaneous and less socialized
Me: society’s/generalized other’s view of me, more socialized/rational
Prep Stage: imitation
Play Stage: role play (I developed)
Game Stage: understanding of generalized other (Me developed)
What is the looking glass self?
I am who I think you think I am
What is attribution theory? Internal? External? Consistency? Consensus?
Internal attributions: dispositional/about personality
External attributions: situational/about environment
Consistency: if the behavior is consistent it’s likely an internal attribution
Consensus: if a lot of people perform the behavior it’s likely an external attribution
What is the fundamental attribution error? Actor-observer bias?
FAE: tendency to overemphasize dispositional attribution and underemphasize situational attribution
Actor-observer bias is when I attribute my own actions to external things but the actions of others to internal attributes
Western vs. eastern cultural difference in attributions?
Western: success is internal, failure is external
Eastern: success and failure is external
What is the self-serving bias?
To preserve self-esteem successes are internal and failures are external
What is the just-world bias?
Belief that world is fair and good things happen to hard-workers and bad things happen to lazy people
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
An original belief comes to reality whether we consciously or unconsciously bring it to be
What is the optimism bias?
Underestimating the probability that bad things will happen to us
What is the overconfidence bias?
The degree of being sure in a belief is greater than the actual accuracy of that belief
What is stereotype threat/boost?
When exposure to a negative/positive stereotype before a task can threaten/improve performance on that task
Prejudice vs. discrimination?
Prejudice is an attitude versus discrimination is more an action
What are serial position effects? Primacy? Recency?
Primacy is remembering the early/first things better
Recency is remembering the later things better
What is the halo effect?
The tendency to evaluate people as inherently overall good w/o actually looking at their specific characteristics
Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relavitism?
Ethnocentrism: judging another culture from the position of your own and typically seeing own culture as superior (negative actions)
Cultural Relativism: judging and understanding cultural actions from within that culture
What four things govern attraction/friendship?
Proximity/mere exposure: repeated exposure to people increases our liking of them and the closer they are the more likely exposure
Physical attraction: yes
Similarity: in attitudes, values, beliefs, likes
Reciprocity: yes
What did Harlow’s monkey study show?
That attachment is less out of food and more out of comfort/security
Secure vs. insecure attachment?
Secure: caregiver is sensitive and responsible, child explores when caregiver is near, child is distressed when caregiver leaves and comforted when they return, long-term is healthy
Insecure: non-sensitive and non-responsible caregiver, child is apathetic and clingy to caregiver, long term is unhealthy
Ascribed vs. achieved status?
Ascribed: given from birth and can’t be changed
Achieved: earned from working for it
What is role strain? Conflict? Exit?
Strain: tension w/ in a role from competing responsibilities
Conflict: tension b/w two separate roles
Exit: disengage from role
What is power vs. authority?
Power: the ability to influence and control others
Authority: when someone’s power is perceived as legit
What are primary vs. secondary groups?
Primary: closest members to you (family/close friends)
Secondary: more formal/business related, associated with a purpose (co-workers)
What is the dramaturgical approach? Front stage? Back stage? Impression management?
Front stage: behavior in a social setting
Backstage: behavior in a private setting
Impression management: an attempt to control how others see us in front stage
What is an organization? Normative? Utilitarian? Coercive?
Institutions designed for a specific purpose
Normative: shared goals, sense of unity/purpose
Utilitarian: compensated for efforts
Coercive: don’t have choice in membership
What are features of a bureacracy?
A specialized division in labor, hierarchical with supervision, rules and regulations, impersonality of activity, technical qualifications
What is the functional perspective/theory? Manifest? Latent?
How all institutions have a function in keeping society stable, social solidarity
Manifest: intended consequence
Latent: indirect consequence
What is conflict theory? False conciousness?
Examines social control, social inequality, and power differences (rich vs. poor) in allocation of resources
False consciousness: hoodwinking the oppressed and saying just do better, people don’t see they are oppressed
What is symbolic interactionism?
The individual significance and meaning given to objects, events, symbols
Focuses on individual interactions and how experience influences perceptions (illness experience)
What are the different levels of kinship? Primary? Secondary? Tertiary?
Primary: first degree family member (mom)
Secondary: primary of first degree (uncle)
Tertiary: secondary of first degree (mom’s uncle)
What are the different kinship relations? Consanguineal? Affinal? Fictive?
Consanguineal: genetic relationship
Affinal: marriage
Fictive: social ties, adopted children
What is medicalization?
Process where previously “normal” conditions are now defined as a medical condition and subject to medical treatments
What is the sick role?
Expectation that those sick are allowed a temporary break from responsibilities but also that the sick have an obligation to make an effort to get well
What is social constructionism?
How people actively shape reality through social interactions, constructs are not real and are only given reality b/c of social agreement
What is feminist theory?
Origins are from conflict theory and inequality but focuses on inequalities b/w men and women
What is rational choice/exchange theory?
People are fundamentally rational beings and perform cost/benefit analysis to actions and interactions
What is the dependency ratio?
Ratio between dependents (children and elderly who don’t work) and those who work
What is life-course theory?
Aging is a social, psychological, biological process and there’s different changes as you progress through life
Race vs. ethnicity?
Race: socially defined categories by physical difference b/w groups (skin color)
Ethnicity: socially defined categories by shared language, religion, nationality, history etc.
Assimilation vs. separation vs. marginalization vs. integration?
Assimilation: accept new culture, reject native culture
Separation: rejection of new culture, maintenance of native culture
Marginalization: rejection of both new and native culture
Integration: acceptance of both new and native culture
What is world-systems theory?
Core: strong economy and central government, exports goods (US and Western Europe)
Semi-periphery: In between (India and Brazil)
Periphery: weak economy and central government, exports resources so are dependent on and exploited by core countries (Latin America and Africa)
Relative vs. absolute poverty?
Relative: A % of poverty level, used in core countries
Absolute: $ a day, used in periphery countries
What is relative deprivation?
How oppressed groups/deprived of rights organize to respond
What are the demographic transition stages?
1) pre-industrial: high birth + high death = slow pop. growth
2) industrial: high birth + low death (food/medicine) = rapid pop. growth
3) urbanization: lower birth (contraception) + low death = slower pop. growth
4) developed: low birth + low death = slow pop. growth
5) highly developed: low low birth + low death = possible pop. decline
What is Malthusian Theory? Preventative checks? Positive checks? Catastrophe?
Preventative checks: reduce birth rate
Positive checks: increase death rate
Catastrophe: Large scale positive check to slow or stop pop. growth
What is a subculture? Counterculture? Microculture?
Subculture: different but not in opposition to dominant culture
Counterculture: in opposition to dominant culture
Microculture: A group/organization that exists for a limited time during one’s life (girl scouts)
What does the glass-ceiling refer to?
Refers to gender pay-gap and females being poorly represented in higher positions
Intra vs. inter?
Intra: within one’s own generation
Inter: b/w generations
What is social reproduction? Social capital? Cultural capital?
The replication of inequality across generations
Social capital: connections, who you know
Cultural capital: education, what you know
What is spatial inequality?
The uneven distribution of resources across a geographic area (low-income projects housing)
What is the activity theory of aging? Continuity? Disengagement? Life course?
Activity: remain physically and socially active improves quality of life
Continuity: older adults attempt to maintain habits and behaviors from youth
Disengagement: withdrawal from social relationships/society
Life-Course: holistic
Proximal vs. distal stimulus?
Proximal: the stimulus registered by our sensory receptors
Distal: what is causing the stimulus (if we saw a tree then the tree itself would be the distal stimulus)
What is cultural lag? cultural transmission?
Lag: cultural catch-up to modern technology
Transmission: passing down from generation to generation
Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation?
Extrinsic: motivated by external conditions or anything associated with incentives (reinforcers or punishers)
Intrinsic: self-drive to do better
Binocular vs. monocular depth cues?
Binocular:
- retinal disparity and convergence: depth/how far
something is
Monocular:
- motion parallax: things closer to me moves faster
(road vs. clouds)
- relative size: things closer to me appear bigger
- light shade: gives sense of distance
- interposition: partially objects covered are behind
What is place theory?
Associated with sound
What is the Thomas theorem?
When a belief leads to behavior but the belief is in fact not real
