Psych/Soc

Question 1

Mental set

Answer 1

A mental set refers to a tendency to rely on strategies that have worked in the past, a problem that can severely impede the problem-solving process.

Question 2

Functional fixedness

Answer 2

Refers to an inability to see an object being used in ways other than how it is traditionally used. This may seem somewhat similar to a mental set, but functional fixedness generally refers to the utilization of tools or objects.

Question 3

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 3

Refers to the tendency to assume that previous experience will predict future experience.

Question 4

Sigmund Freud

Answer 4

Well known for his work with dreams and dream interpretation.

The psychoanalytic perspective would find these interpretations most useful.

Question 5

Karen Horney

Answer 5

Known for her critique of Freud’s concept of penis envy and her work on personality theory.

Question 6

Erik Erikson

Answer 6

Known for his psychosocial theory of cognitive development.

The psychosocial perspective focuses on social crises that must be conquered for optimal development.

Question 7

Albert Bandura

Answer 7

Known for his social learning (or social cognitive) theory and his famous Bobo Doll study.

Social learning theory focuses on how behaviors are learned through observation.

Question 8

Androgeny

Answer 8

Describes a person who displays both traditional masculine and traditional feminine characteristics at the same time.

Question 9

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 9

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious conflicts and motives.

Question 10

Opponent-process theory

Answer 10

In regards to visual perception: it is a theory that says that opposing retinal processes enable color vision.

In regards to motivation and emotion: according to this theory, drug addiction is the result of an emotional pairing of pleasure and the emotional symptoms associated with withdrawal. Over time, levels of pleasure from using the drug decrease and the levels of withdrawal symptoms increase, thus providing motivation to keep using the drug despite a lack of pleasure from it.

Question 11

Explain the steps of the stress response system.

Answer 11

Alarm reaction is the first phase, Resistance is the second phase, and exhaustion is the third and final phase.

Question 12

Polyandry

Answer 12

Polyandry is a marriage that unites a person with two or more husbands (think, many “Andy’s”)

This is the rarest type of family formation.

Question 13

Polygyny

Answer 13

Polygyny is a marriage that unites a person with two or more women.

Question 14

Monogamy

Answer 14

Monogamy is defined as marriage that unites two partners.

This is the most common type of family formation.

Question 15

Differential association theory

Answer 15

This theory was developed by Edwin Sutherland and it argues that people learn criminal and noncriminal behavior and attitudes from others in a group. It is most commonly talked about in the learning theories of deviance.

In other words, it proposes that through interactions with others, individuals learn values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior.

Question 16

Control theory

Answer 16

Suggests that social ties are important in helping people resist temptations to break the laws.

It is the idea that two control systems - inner and outer controls - work agains our tendencies to deviate.

Question 17

Labeling theory

Answer 17

Posits that people come to identify and behave in ways that reflect how others label them. It is associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping. Also, it is commonly associated with the sociology of crime and deviance.

Question 18

Strain theory

Answer 18

Argues that people commit crime or break rules based on whether or not they accept society’s goals and whether or not they have the opportunity to reach them.

In other words, it states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals (i.e., the American dream), though they lack the means and this pressure drives individuals to commit crime.

Question 19

Merton argued that when individuals are faced with a gap between their goals (usually finances/money related) and their current status, strain occurs. When faced with strain, people have five ways to adapt:

Answer 19

1. Conformity: pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means.
2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.
3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble).
4. Retreatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it.
5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them.

Question 20

Anomie

Answer 20

Anomie in societies or individuals, a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals.

Emile Durkheim coined the term and said that when a social system is in a state of anomie, common values and common meanings are no longer understood or accepted, and new values and meanings have not developed. Striving is considered useless, because there is no accepted definition of what is desirable.

Question 21

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

Answer 21

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that emotion and physiological arousal are independent, simultaneous events.

Question 22

James-Lange theory of emotion

Answer 22

This theory states that emotions only occur as a function of the physiological arousal.

Question 23

Schacter-Singer theory of emotion

Answer 23

This theory states that emotion is a two-factor process: physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal of situational factors.

Question 24

What is a quasi-experiment

Answer 24

A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but it lacks the key ingredient - random assignment.

Often, when a symptom or disease is being studied, this approach is necessary because groups must consist of disease, no-disease. There is no possible way to randomly assort participants into groups and THEN give the disease group the disease - which is what is required for a true experimental design. Even if one attempted this approach, it would be unethical to inflict a disease condition on participants.

Question 25

Flashbulb memory

Answer 25

A flashbulb memory is a vivid “picture-like” memory of an event that is particularly emotional or has significant consequences.

Question 26

Semantic memory vs. Implicit memory

Answer 26

Semantic memory is a more structured record of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge; it refers to general factual knowledge, independent of personal experience.

Implicit memory is the unconscious use of memory.

Question 27

Explain the concept of “glass escalator”

Answer 27

The “glass escalator” is a term derived from the concept of a glass ceiling, which suggest that there are hidden barriers to women in the workplace. The glass escalator describes the ability of men to ascend quickly to higher levels of pay and responsibility in female-dominated professions.

In contrast to the “invisible glass” being a barrier as it is for women, this “invisible force” gives men an advantage - thus, the use of an escalator as a symbol. For example, most nurses are women, but male nurses are more likely to be promoted to supervisory positions.

Question 28

What is the continuity theory of aging?

Answer 28

The continuity theory of normal aging states that older adults will usually maintain the same activities, behaviors, personality traits, and relationships as they did in earlier phases of life.

Ex: an aging professional golfer is likely to continue golfing in whatever way he can and maintain relationships with his old gold buddies.

Question 29

Conflict theory

Answer 29

Conflict theory deals with the competition between members of society for scarce resources; a process through which some groups win and others lose.

Question 30

Folk taxonomy

Answer 30

Folk taxonomy (usually uncountable) is the vernacular naming or classification of things on the basis of cultural tradition, rather than on scientific principles.

Folk biological classification is the way people traditionally describe and organize their natural surroundings/the world around them, typically making generous use of form taxa like “shrubs”, “bugs”, “ducks”, “ungulates” and the likes.

Question 31

Syncretism

Answer 31

Refers to the combinations of different forms of belief or practice.

Ex: Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated traditions.