Psych/Soc

Question 1

Impression management

Answer 1

The active process of creating a specific impression of oneself to others.

The act of impression management is directed toward an “audience.”

Question 2

Socialization

Answer 2

The process through which people learn things that prepare them to participate in social systems in a socially acceptable way.

Question 3

Participant observation research method

Answer 3

Participant observation requires the researcher to DIRECTLY participate in the social phenomena being studied.

The researcher is immersed in the social situation being studied.

Question 4

Symbolic racism

Answer 4

People believe that racism is wrong but do not see racism as a significant institutional problem in society since the 1960s.

So they would not support overtly racist practices such as segregation, but still believe that racism is not a structural or institutional issue in the United States.

Question 5

Jim Crow racism

Answer 5

This phrase is used to explain institutional racism.

Question 6

Prejudice theory

Answer 6

This theory suggests that people are prejudiced due to outgroup competition.

Question 7

Social control theory

Answer 7

Social control theory proposes that people’s relationships, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs encourage them not to break the law. Thus, if moral codes are internalized and individuals are tied into and have a stake in their wider community, they will voluntarily limit their propensity to commit deviant acts. The theory seeks to understand the ways in which it is possible to reduce the likelihood of criminality developing in individuals.

Question 8

“Second Shift”

Answer 8

A concept used within the conflict theory perspective to explain the unequal division of labor in the household between women and men.

Question 9

What single variable, if changed, that will have the greatest impact on health outcomes in developing countries?

Answer 9

Increased income. A higher income is associated with a variety of other behaviors that impact health. Ex, wealthier people have access to more nutritious food.

Many developing countries already have universal healthcare but it is underfunded or ineffective. But even in industrialized nations with universal healthcare the health of citizens in lower SES lags behind that of wealthier citizens.

Question 10

Stereotype threat

Answer 10

Refers to being at risk of confirming, by one’s own performance or behavior, a negative stereotype about one’s own stereotyped group.

Question 11

Implicit bias

Answer 11

Refers to attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.

Question 12

Depressive realism

Answer 12

Refers to the hypothesis that depressed individuals make more realistic inferences than do non-depressed individuals.

So depressed individuals make more realistic predictions/assumptions about the world.

Question 13

Hypothalamus function

Answer 13

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and regulates endocrine function.

Question 14

Pons function

Answer 14

The pons is a bridging point between the hindbrain and the midbrain.
It contains portions of the reticular activating system which is involved in arousal and is the site of several neurotransmitter nuclei within the brain.

Question 15

Precentral gyrus

Answer 15

The precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe is part of the primary motor cortex.

Question 16

Confounding variable

Answer 16

Variables that experimenters fail to control that might complicate data interpretation.

Question 17

Subject variable

Answer 17

Subject variables are the individual characteristics that make each experimental participant unique.

Question 18

What is the order in which visual cues are transmitted from the eye to the brain?

Answer 18

Photoreceptor –> retinal ganglion cell –> optic nerve –> LATERAL geniculate nucleus –> striate cortex.

The lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus receives visual input from the retina and then sends that info on to the primary visual cortex, AKA the striate cortex.

Do not get confused with the MEDIAL geniculate nucleus of the thalamus which is involved in processing AUDITORY information.

Question 19

Retroactive interference

Answer 19

Refers to problems that cause errors in recall when recently learned info interferes with the ability to recall previously learned info.

Question 20

Needs-based motivation vs. Drive-reduction theory

Answer 20

Needs-based motivation is a theory of motivation that suggests people are motivated by the desire to satisfy their most urgent needs.

Drive reduction is a motivational theory characterized by some extant physiological need such as hunger or sexual arousal.

Question 21

Availability heuristic vs. Representativeness heuristic

Answer 21

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut whereby one gives precedence to the most immediate examples that come to mind.

The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut based on reasoning that is related to how representative something seems to be of a category (e.g., how likely is a woman to be a librarian based on how similar she seems to the idea one has of a typical librarian).

Question 22

Positive illusion bias

Answer 22

Involves having an exaggerated or inflated assessment of one’s own abilities, how good the future will be, or how much control one has over life events.

Note: negative illusions bias is not a thing.

Question 23

Anchoring bias

Answer 23

Anchoring or focalism is a cognitive bias for an individual to rely too heavily on an initial piece of information offered (known as the “anchor”) when making decisions.

Once the value of this anchor is set, all future negotiations, arguments, estimates, etc. are discussed in relation to the anchor. For example, the initial price offered for a used car, set either before or at the start of negotiations, sets an arbitrary focal point for all following discussions. Prices discussed in negotiations that are lower than the anchor may seem reasonable, perhaps even cheap to the buyer, even if said prices are still relatively higher than the actual market value of the car.

Question 24

When would an EEG indicate paradoxical sleep?

Answer 24

During a sleep period similar to those of a person who is awake.

REM, AKA paradoxical sleep, is a period of sleep during which the skeletal muscles demonstrate apparent paralysis even though respiration rate increases and the brain’s activity is similar to that of a person in an awake state.

Question 25

The big five factor model

Answer 25

OCEAN

Openness - refers to an individual’s willingness to try new things, to be vulnerable, and ability to think outside the box.

Concientiousness - a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviors that facilitate goal-directed behavior (plan and organize effectively)

Extroversion - it concerns where an individual draws their energy and how they interact with others/pursuit of interactions with others.

Agreeableness - this factor concerns how well people get along with others, so how you generally interact with others. Ex: Altruistic, trusting, patient, kind, loyal, etc.

Neuroticisim - a factor of confidence and being comfortable in one’s own skin. It encompasses one’s emotional stability and general temper. A high score in this is the one out of the big five which indicates more negative traits (traits commonly associated with it: pessimistic, moody, anxious, unconfident, insecure).

Question 26

Expectancy-Value Theory of motivation

Answer 26

The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we are thinking about the future, we formulate different expectations about what we think will happen. When we predict that there will most likely be a positive outcome, we believe that we are able to make that possible future a reality. This leads people to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.

The theory proposes that motivations consist of three key elements: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy. Valence refers to the value people place on the potential outcome. Things that seem unlikely to produce personal benefit have a low valence, while those that offer immediate personal rewards have a higher valence.

Instrumentality refers to whether people believe that they have a role to play in the predicted outcome. If the event seems random or outside of the individual’s control, people will feel less motivated to pursue that course of action. If the individual plays a major role in the success of the endeavor, however, people will feel more instrumental in the process.

Expectancy is the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcome. If people feel like they lack the skills or knowledge to achieve the desired outcome, they will be less motivated to try. People who feel capable, on the other hand, will be more likely to try to reach that goal.

Question 27

Psychodynamic model of personality

Answer 27

Attributes human functioning to an interplay between drives and internal forces, both conscious and subconscious.
It is primarily associated with Freud’s theory of personality that references the Id, Ego and Superego.

Question 28

Histrionic personality disorder

Answer 28

Characterized by attention-seeking and excessive or inappropriate public displays. These individuals often have a desire for others to witness their emotional outbursts.

Question 29

Amygdala function

Answer 29

Particularly involved in perceptions and experiences of primal emotions such as anger.

Question 30

The Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Answer 30

The theory that suggests that the physical expression of an emotion also activates the experience of that emotion.

Ex: expressing a ‘happy’ body language in one’s face should engage the experience of happiness within the person making those expressions.

Question 31

Psychodynamic Theory

Answer 31

Freud originated this approach and it explains human behavior in the context of conflicts between drivers and subconscious forces.

Question 32

The James-Lange Theory

Answer 32

The James-Lange Theory of emotion suggests that emotions are the direct result of physiological reactions to external stimuli, such as the activation of the sympathetic nervous system.

Question 33

The Cannon-Bard Theory

Answer 33

This theory emphasizes that emotions occur physiologically and are experienced psychologically at the same time.

Question 34

Explain Valence as an aspect of emotion.

Answer 34

In psychology, valence describes the inherent attractiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus, event or situation. So it describes whether the emotion is pleasant or unpleasant.

Attractive (pleasant) stimuli are labeled as having a positive valence and aversive (unpleasant) stimuli are labeled as having a negative valence.

Question 35

Explain Arousal as an aspect of emotion.

Answer 35

Arousal is the degree to which an emotion or experience is activated or deactivated.

For example, an intense, acute sense of emotion may be felt when being reunited with a close friend or family member, which seeing your neighbor may evoke a mild to neutral sense of emotion.

Question 36

Social obedience

Answer 36

Occurs when individuals obey orders which may be contrary to their own values.

Question 37

Intersectionality

Answer 37

Suggests that the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender create overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.

Question 38

Glass ceiling

Answer 38

It is the unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements.

Question 39

Miscegenation

Answer 39

Refers to the mixing of racial and ethnic groups in intimate relationships.

Question 40

Meritocracy

Answer 40

Suggests that individuals are able to obtain social positions, including management positions, based on individual merit.

Question 41

Common Neurotransmitters

Answer 41

Glutamate - involved in the process of Long-term potentiation (LTP). Specifically, the NMDA receptor for glutamate is directly associated with LTP.

GABA - the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS.

Glycine - Also an inhibitory neurotransmitter

Serotonin - a neurotransmitter associated with a variety of unrelated functions such as food, sleep, and appetite.

Question 42

Describe the functions of the different types of hair cells in the auditory system (Inner, outer, and the hair cells of the semicircular canals):

Answer 42

Inner hair cells of the cochlea - the sensory receptors for the human auditory system and they are responsible for the transduction of an auditory signal.

Outer hair cells of the cochlea - used for mechanical amplification.

Hair cells of the semicircular canals - they transduce vestibular information regarding balance and orientation.

Question 43

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Answer 43

This form of therapy is a short-term therapy that focuses on helping clients deal with a specific problem, such as insomnia, smoking cessation, or weight loss.

During this form of therapy, clients learn how to identify and change patterns that negatively influence behavior.

Question 44

Aversive therapy

Answer 44

A form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

This form of therapy might be used to assist with something like alcohol or drug addiction, or to eliminate an undesirable habit such as nail biting.

Question 45

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 45

Maslow stated that the lower, or fundamental needs in the hierarchy of needs were “deficiency” or “d-needs.” If these fundamental needs are not satisfied, a person is not motivated to work towards higher-order needs.