Psych Final (270) Flashcards
a (alpha)
How low the p value must be before the sample result is considered unlikely in null hypothesis testing
Alternating treatments Design
Two or more treatments are alternated relatively quickly on a regular schedule
Alternative hypothesis
The idea that there is a relationship in the population and that the relationship in the sample reflects this relationship in the population
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Most common null hypothesis test when there are more than two groups or condition means to be compared
APA Ethics Code
A code first published in 1953 which includes approximately 150 specific ethical standards that psychologists and their students are expected to follow
Applied Behaviour Analysis
Starting in the 1960s, researchers began using single-subject techniques to conduct applied research with human subjects
Applied Research
Research conducted primarily to address some practical problem
Autonomy
A person’s right to make their own choices and take their own actions free from coercion
Baseline
The level of responding before any treatment is introduced and therefore acts as a kind of control condition
Basic Research
In psychology, research conducted for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of human behaviour, without necessarily trying to address any particular problem
Behavioural Measures
Measures in which some aspect of participants’ behaviour is observed and recorded
Belmont Report
Published in 1978 in the United States, this explicitly recognized the principle f seeking justice including the importance of conducting research in a way that distributes risks and benefits fairly across different groups at the societal level
Between-subjects Experiment
An experiment in which each participant is only tested in one condition
Between-subjects Factorial Design
All of the independent variables are manipulated between subjects
Block Randomization
All the conditions of an experiment occur once in the sequence before any of them is repeated
BRUSO
A guideline for questionnaire items that suggests they should be brief, relevant, specific, and objective
Bystander effect
The more people who are present at an emergency situation, the less likely it is that any one of them will help
Carryover Effect
An effect of being tested in one condition on participants’ behaviour in later conditions
Case study
A detailed description of an individual, which can include both qualitative and quantitative analyses
Categorical variable
A quality that is typically measured by assigning a category label to each individual
Central tendency
The point around which the scores in the distribution tend to cluster, also called the average
Clinical practice of psychology
The diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and related problems
Closed-ended Items
A questionnaire item that asks a question and provides a set of response options for participants to choose from
Cluster sampling
A method of probability sampling in which larger clusters of individuals are randomly sampled and then individuals within each cluster are randomly sampled
Coding
A judgement on part of the observers by clearly defining a set of target behaviours
Cohen’s d
The most widely used measure of effect size for differences between group or condition means; the difference between the two means divided by the standard deviation
Cohen’s k
A statistic analogous to Cronbach’s a, which assesses interrater reliability
Conceptual Definition
A definition of a psychological construct that describes the behaviours and internal processes of that construct and how it relates to other variables
Concern for welfare
A guideline for the Tri-council policy that refers to ensuring participants are not exposed to unnecessary risk, maintaining privacy and confidentiality, and providing information to participants
Conditions
The different levels of the independent variable
Confederate
A helper of a researcher who pretends to be a real participant
Confidence interval
A range of values that is computed in such a way that some percentage of the time, the population parameter will lie within that range
Confidentiality
An agreement not to disclose participants’ personal information without their concent or some appropriate legal authorization
Confirmation bias
The focus on cases that confirm beliefs and dismissal of cases that disprove them
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable that differs on average across levels of the independent variable
Consent form
A document informing participants of procedure, risks, and benefits of the research that is signed during the process of informed consent
Construct validity
The quality of the experiment’s manipulations
Constructs
Variables that are not straightforward or simple to measure such as intelligence
Content analysis
A family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data
Content validity
The extent to which a measure “covers” the construct of interest
Context Effect
Being tested in one condition can also change how participants perceive stimuli or interpret their task in later conditions
Control
Method of holding extraneous variables at a constant
Control Condition
A condition in a study that the other condition is compared to. This group does not receive the treatment or intervention that the other conditions do
Converging Operations
Multiple operational definitions of the same construct
Correlation Matrix
A table showing the correlation between every possible pair of variables in the study
Correlational research
The researcher measures the two variables of interest with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables and then asses the relationship between them
Counterbalancing
Testing different participants in different orders
Criteria
In reference to criterion validity, variables that one would expect to be correlated with the measure
Criterion validity
The extent to which people’s scores on a measure are correlated with other variables that one would expect them to be correlated with
Critical values
Points on the test distribution that are compared to the test statistic to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis
Cronbach’s a
A statistic in which a is the mean of all possible split-half correlations for a set of items
Debriefing
The process of informing research participants as soon as possible of the purpose of the study, revealing deception, and correcting misconceptions they may have as a result of participating in the study
Deception
Includes misinforming participants of the purpose of the study, using confederates, using fake equipment, or presenting false performance feedback
Declaration of Helsinki
An ethics code created by the World Medical Council in 1964, adding that research with human participants should be based on a written protocol
Demand characteristics
Cues to how the researcher expects participants to behave
Dependent samples T test
Statistical test used to compare two means for the same sample tested at two different times or under two different conditions
Dependent Variable (Y)
The variable that is thought to be the effect of the independent variable
Descriptive statistics
A set of techniques for summarizing and displaying data
Difference score
Variable formed by subtracting one variable from another
Discriminant Validity
The extent to which scores on a measure are not correlated with measures of variables that are conceptually distinct
Distribution
The way the scores are dispersed across the levels of the variable
Double-blind study
An experiment in which both the participants and the experimenters are blind to which condtion the participants have been assigned to
Effect size
The strength of a statistical relationship
Empirical questions
The second fundamental feature of science; questions about the way the world actually is and can be answered through systematic empiricism
Error bars
Small bars at the top of each main bar in a bar graph that represent the variability in each group or condition
Ethics
A branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality, what it means to behave morally and how people can achieve this goal
Experimental analysis of behaviour
Laboratory methods that rely on single-subject research; based upon B. F. Skinner’s philosophy of behaviourism which posits that everything organisms do is behaviour
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
A source of variation in which the experimenter’s expectations about hwo participants “should” be have in the experiment
External Validity
When a study is conducted supports gerneralizing the results to people and situations beyond those actually studied
Extraneous variable
Anything that varies in the context of a study other than the independent and dependent variable
Face validity
The extent to which a measurement method appears to measure the construct of interest
Factor
In a factorial design, each level of one independent variable
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique that organizes the variables into a smaller number of clusters, such that they are strongly correlated within each cluster but weakly correlated between clusters
Factorial ANOVA
A null hypothesis test that is used when more than one independent variable is included in a factorial design
Factorial Design
An approach to including multiple independent variables in an experiment where each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of the others to produce all possible combinations
Factorial Design Table
A table showing each condition produced by the combinations of variables
Falsifiable
Scientific claims must be expressed in such a way that there are observations that would count as evidence against the claim
Fatigue Effect
Participants perform a task worse in later conditions because they become tired or bored
Feasibility
The state or ability of being easily or conveniently completed
Field Experiments
Experiments conducted entirely outside the laboratory
File Drawer Problem
When researchers obtain nonsignificant results, they tend not to submit them for publication or, if they are submitted, they are not accepted
Focus groups
Small groups of people who participate together in interviews focused on a particular topic or issue
Folk Psychology
Intuitive beliefs about people’s behaviour, thought, and feelings
Formality
The extent to which the components of the theory and the relationships among them are specified clearly and in detail
Frequency Table
A table in which one column lists the values of a variable (the possible scores) and the other column lists the frequency of each score (how many participants had that score)
Full REB Review
The default requirement for research involving humans
Functional Approach
Psychological phenomena are explained in terms of their function or purpose
Fundamental attribution error
People tend to explain others’ behaviour in terms of their personal characteristics as opposed to the situation they are in
Grounded theory
Researchers start with the data and develop a theory or interpretation that is “grounded in” the data
Group Research
The study of large numbers of participants and examining their behaviour primarily in terms of group means, standard deviations, and so on
Histogram
A graphical display of a distribution
Hypothesis
A prediction about a new phenomenon based on a theory; can also be an explanation that relies on just a few key concepts
Hypothetico-deductive method
Primary way that scientific researchers use theories
Independent-samples T test
Statistical test used to compare the means of two separate samples
Independent Variable (X)
The variable of a statistical relationship that is thought to cause the other variable
Informed consent
Researchers obtain and document people’s agreement to participate in a study after having informed them of everything that might resonably be expected to affect their decision
Interaction
When the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another
Internal consistency
Consistency of people’s responses across the items on a multiple-item measure
Internal Validity
When the way an experiment was conducted supports the conclusion that the independent variable caused observed differences in the dependent variable. These studies provide strong support for causal conclusions
Interrater Reliability
The extent to which different observers are consistent in their judgments
Interrupted Time-series Design
A set of measurements taken at intervals over a period of time that are interrupted by a treatment
Interval level
Level of measurement in which scores represent the precise magnitude of the difference between individuals, but a score of 0 does not represent an absence of the characteristic
Item-order Effect
The order in which the items are presented affects people’s responses
Justice
A guideline of the Tri-Council Policy that refers to the obligation to treat people fairly and equitably
Latency
The time it takes for the dependent variable to begin changing after a change in conditions
Level
Whether the data is higher or lower based on a visual inspection of the data; a change in the level implies the treatment introduced had an effect
Levels of Measurement
Different levels of quantitative information that can be communicated by a set of scores
Main Effect
In factorial design, the statistical relationship between one independent variable and a dependent variable-averaging across the levels of the other independent variable
Manipulate
To change an independent variable’s level systematically so that different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of that variable, or the same group of participants is exposed to different levels at different times
Manipulation Check
A separate measure of the construct the researcher is trying to manipulate
Maturation
An alternative explanation that refers to how the participants might have changed between the pretest and posttest in ways that they were going to anyway because they are growing and learning
Mean
Symbolized M, the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores
Mean squares between groups (MSB)
An estimate of population variance based on the differences among the scores within each group
Measurement
The assignment of scores to individuals where the scores represent some characteristic of the individuals
Mechanistic Theories
Focus on specific variables, structures, and processes as well as how these factors interact to produce a particular phenomena
Median
The middle score in the sense that half the scores in the distribution are less than it and half are greater than it
Mere exposure effect
The more often people have been exposed to a stimulus, the more they like it - even when the stimulus is presented subliminally
Minimal Risk Research
When the likelihood and magnitude of possible harms faced b the participants is no greater than those encountered in in everyday life
Mixed factorial design
When one indpendent variable is manipulated between subjects and another is manipulated within subjects
Mixed-methods Research
The combination of quantitative and qualitative research
Mode
The most frequent score in a distribution
Model
A precise explanation or interpretation of a specific phenomenon; expressed in terms of equations, computer programs, or biological structures and processes
Mundane realism
The participants and the situation studied are similar to those that the researchers want to generalize to and participants encounter everyday
Multiple-baseline Design
A baseline is established for several participants and the treatment is then introduced to each participant at a different time
Multiple dependent variables
When researchers examine the relationship between a single independent variable and more than one dependent variable
Naturalistic observation
An approach to data collection that involves observing peoples behaviour in the environment in which it typically occurs
Negative relationship
Higher scores on one variable tend to be associated wth lower scores on the other variable
Nominal Level
Level of measurement used for categorical variables and involves assigning scores that act as category labels
Nonequivalent groups design
A between-subjects design in which participants have not been randomly assigned to conditions
Nonexperimental research
Research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions, or both
Nonlinear relationships
The points of a data set are better fit by a curved line
Nonmanipulated independent variable
In a factorial design, the researcher measures and independent variable but does not manipulate it
Nonprobability sampling
When the researcher cannot specify the probability that each member of the population will be selected for the sample
Nonresponse bias
A form of sampling bias in which survey nonresponders differ from responders in systematic ways
No-treatment control condition
A type of control condition in which participants receive no treatment
Null hypothesis
The idea that there is no relationship in the population and that the relationship in the sample reflects only sampling error
Null hypothesis testing
A formal approach to deciding between two interpretations of a statistical relationship in a sample
Nuremberg Code
A set of ten principles written in 1947 in conjunction with the trials of Nazi physicians that provided a standard by which to compare the behaviour of the men on trial
Occam’s razor
Another term for parsimony
One-sample T Test
Compares a sample mean with a hypothetical population mean that provides some interesting standard of comparison
One-tailed test
Where the null hypothesis is rejected only if the t score for the sample is extreme in one direction that we specify before collecting the data
One-way ANOVA
A null hypothesis test that is used for between-between subjects designs with a single independent variable
Open-ended items
A questionnaire item that allows participants to answer in whatever way they choose
Opening
An introduction to the research question and explanation for why this question is interesting
Open Science Practices
Practices that increase the transparency and openness of the scientific enterprise. Examples include pre-registration of hypotheses and the sharing of raw data and research materials
Operational definition
A definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured
Operationalization
Conversion from research question to experiment design
Ordinal Level
Level of measurement in which scores represent the rank order of the individuals, showing how individuals are different from each other and whether they are higher or lower on the variable being measured
Organization
Referring to an article, the sections that are included and what order they appear in
Other-race effect
People recognize faces of people of their own race more accurately than faces of people of other races
Outlier
An extreme score that is much higher or lower than the rest of the scores in the distribution
P Hacking
A data malppractice in which a researcher might perform inferential statistical calculations to see if a result was significant before deciding whether to recruit additional participants and collect more data
P value
The probability that, if the null hypothesis were true, the result found in the sample would occur
Parameters
Values in a population that correspond to variables measured in a study
Parsimony
A principle which holds that a theory should include only as many concepts as are necessary to explain or interpret the phenomena of interest
Participant Observation
Researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying
Pearson’s r
A statistic measuring the strength of a correlation between quantitative variables ranging from -1.00 (strongest negative relationship) to +1.00 (strongest positive relationship), with 0 showing no relationship between variables
Percentage of Nonoverlapping Data (PND)
The percentage of responses in the treatment condition that are more extreme than the most extreme response in a relevant control condition
Percentile Rank
The percentage of scores in the distribution that are lower than a particular score
Phenomenon
A general result that has been observed reliably in systematic empirical research
Pilot test
A small-scale study conducted to make sure that a new procedure works as planned
Placebo
A stimulated treatment that lacks any active ingredient or element that should make it effective
Placebo control condition
Paricipants receive a placebo that looks like the treatment but lacks the active ingredient or element thought to be responsible for the treatment’s effectiveness
Placebo Effect
A positive effect of a treatment that lacks any active ingredient or element to make it effective
Population
A very large group of people
Positive relationship
Higher scores on one variable tend to be associated with higher scores on the other variable
Practical Significance
The importance or usefulness of the result in some real-world context
Practice effect
Participants perform a task better in later conditions because they have had a chance to practice it
Prescreening
A procedure used to identify and eliminate participants who are at high risk
Pretest-posttest Design
The dependent variable is measured once before the treatment is implemented and once after it is implemented
Privacy
A person’s right to decide what information about them is shared with others
Probability Sampling
The researcher can specify the probability that each meber of the population will be selevted for the sample
Prospect theory
A formal theory of decision making under uncertainty
Protocol
A detailed description of the research that is reviewed by an independent committee
Pseudoscience
Activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents, and may appear scientific, but are not
Psychological realism
The same mental process is used in both the laboratory and in the real world
Psychometrics
Measurement used in the field of psychology
Public knowledge
The third fundamental feature of science; scientists publish their work after asking empirical questions, making systematic observations, and drawing conclusions
Qualitative research
Research where the data are usually non-numerical and are analysed using non-statistical techniques
Quantitative research
Research in which data is gathered from a large number of individuals and described using a statistical technique
Quantitative variable
A quantity that is typically measured by assigning a number to each individual
Quasi-experimental research
The researcher manipulates an independent variable but does not randomly assign participants to conditions or orders of conditions
Ratio level
Level of measurement in which there is a true zero point that represents the complete absence of the characteristic
Random assignment
A method of controlling extraneous variables across conditions by using a random process to decide which participants will be tested in the different conditions
Randomized Clinical trial
A type of experiment to research the effectiveness of psychotherapies and medical treatments
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in the distribution
Rating scale
An ordered set of responses that participants must choose from
Raw data
Unanalyzed data collected for a research study
Reactivity
A phenomenon which occurs when subjects alter their performance due to their awareness of being observed
Regression to the mean
The statistical fact that an individual who scores extremely on a variable on one occasion will tend to score less extremely on the next occasion
Reject the null hypothesis
When the relationship found in the sample would be extremely unlikely; the idea that the relaitonship occurred “by chance” is rejected
Reliability
The consistency of a measure
Repeated-measures ANOVA
The dependent variabl is measured multiple times for each participant, allowing a more refined measure of MSW
Replicability Crisis
The inability of researchers to replicate earlier research findings
Replication
Conducting a study again, either exactly as was originally conducted or with modifications, to ensure that it will produce the same results
Rescorla-Wagner model
A theory of classical conditioning that features an equation describing how the strength of the association between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli changes when the two are paired
Research Ethics Board (REB)
A committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems
Research Literature
All the published research in a particular field
Respect for persons
A guideline for the Tri-Council Policy that refers to respecting the autonomy of research participants through free, informed, and ongoing consent and protection of those incapable of exercising autonomy
Respondents
Participants of a survey
Restriction of Range
One or both of the variables have a limited range in the sample relative to the population
Retain the Null Hypothesis
When the relationship found in the sample is likely to have occurred by chance, the null hypothesis is not rejected
Reversal design (ABA design)
A study method in which the researcher gathers data on a baseline state, introduces the treatment and continues observation until a steady state is reached, and finally removes the treatment and observes the participant until they return to a steady state
Sample
A small subset of a population
Sampling bias
When a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the entire population and therefore produces inaccurate results
Sampling error
The random variability in a statistic from sample to sample
Sampling frame
A list of all the members of the population from which to select the respondents
Scatterplots
A graph which shows correlations between quantitative variables; each point represents one person’s score on both variables
Science
A general approach to understanding the natural world
Scope
The number and diversity of the phenomena a theory explains or interprets
Self-report measures
Measures in which participants report on their own thoughts, feelings, and actions
Serial position effect
Stimuli presented near the beginning and end of a list are remembered better than stimuli presented in the middle
Simple random sampling
A probability sampling method in which each individual in the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample
Single-subject research
A type of quantitative research that involves studying the behaviour of each small number of participants in detail
Single-variabl research
Research that focuses on a single variable rather than a statistical relationship between two variables
Skepticism
An attitude in which one considers alternatives and searches for evidence
Skewed
The peak of a distribution is shifted towards either the upper or lower end of its range
Social validity
The study of strong and consistent effects that can be implemented reliably in the real-world contexts in which they occur
Socially desirable responding
A phenomenon where participants respond in the way they believe to be socially appropriate or in a way desired by the researcher
Split-half Correlation
Method of assessing internal consistency through splitting the items into two sets and examining the relationship between them
Spontaneous recovery
A conditioned response that has been extinguished often returns with no further training after the passage of time
Spontaneous remission
The tendency for many medical and psychological problems to improve over time without any form of treatment
Stage theories
Specify a series of stages that people pass through as they develop or adapt to their environment
Standard deviation
The average distance between the scores and the mean
Standard error
The standard deviation of the group divided by the square root of the sample size of the group
Statistical control
The researcher measures potential third variables and includes them in the statistical analysis
Statistical power
The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given the sample size and expected relationship strength
Statistical relationship
Occurs when the average score on one variable differs systematically across the levels of the other variable
Statistical validity
Whether the statistics conducted in the study support the conclusions that are made
Statistically significant
When there is less than a 5% chance of a result as extreme as the sample result occurring and the null hypothesis is rejected
Steady state strategy
The researcher waits until the participant’s behaviour in one condition becomes fairly consistent from observation to observation before changing conditions. This way, any change across conditions will be easy to detect
Stratified Random Sampling
A method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then a random sample is taken from each “stratum”
Subject pool
An established gorup of people who have agreed to be contacted about participating in research studies
Survey research
A quantitative approach in which variables are measured using self-reports from a sample of the population
Symmetrical
A distribution whose left and right halves are mirror images of each other
Systematic empiricism
The first fundamental feature of science; careful planning, making, recording, and analyzing observations of the natural world for the purposes of learning
T Test
A common null hypothesis test examining the difference between two means
Test-retest Correlation
The consistency of a measure on the same group of people at different times
Test-retest reliability
The consistency of a measure over time
Test statistic
A statistic that is computed only to help find the p value
Theoretical approach
Theories in psychology are constructed from a variety of theoretical ideas
Theoretical article
A type of review article primarily devoted to presenting a new theory
Theoretical framework
The established context applied to understanding a phenomenon
Theoretical narrative
An interpretation of the data in terms of the themes identified through qualitative research
Theory
A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena
Third-variable problem
Two variables may be statistically related, but both may be caused by a third and unknown variable
Tolerance for uncertainty
The acceptance of the unknown
Treatment
Any intervention meant to change people’s behaviour for the better
Treatment condition
A condition in a stuyd where participants receive treatment
Trend
The gradual increases or decreases in the dependent variale across observations
Triangulation
Using both quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously to study the same general questions and to compare the results
Tri-council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans
Canadian code of ethics that must be followed by researchers and research institutions
Two-tailed Test
The null hypothesis is rejected if the t score for the sample is extreme in either direction
Type I Error
When the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true; when the research concludes there is a relationship in the population when in fact there is not
Type II Error
When the null hypothesis is retained when it is false; When the research concludes there is no relationship in the population when in fact there is one
Typologies
Groups organized by the distinct type of person or behaviour being categorized
Validity
The extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are intended to
Variability
The extent to which the scores vary around their central tendency
Variale
A quantity or quality that varies across people or situations
Variance
The mean of the squared differences; a measure of variability
Visual Inspection
The plotting of individual participants’ data, examining the data, and making judgements about whether and to what extent the independent variable had an effect on the dependent variable
Within-subjects experiment
Each participant is tested under all conditions
Z score
The difference between an individual’s score and the mean of the distribution, divided by the standard deviation of the distribution
