psych final Flashcards
encoding
first step in creating a memory - basic process that involves the formation of memory code
storage
second step; the state of an item that it is retained in memory.
retrieval
third step; an act of getting info out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
Structural Level of Processing
involves the basic sensory or physical characteristics of stimuli such as visual, sound, or other perceptual features
Phonemic Level of Processing
occurs when we pay attention to the sounds of the item we are processing.
Semantic Level of Processing
encoding the meaning of the word with another word that is similar or has similar meaning
self-referent encoding
a method of organizing information in one’s memory in which one interprets incoming information in relation to one’s self, using their self concept as a background.
sensory memory
mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, smell, and taste.
working memory
form of memory that allows a person to temporarily hold a limited amount of information at the ready for immediate mental use
short-term memory
memory systems in the brain involved in remembering pieces of information for a short period of time
rehearsal
cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a way of remembering and learning
chunking
small individual pieces of a set of information are bound together to create a meaningful whole later on in memory
recall
act of retrieving information or events from the past while lacking a specific cue to help in retrieving the information.
recognition
a form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered
relearning
a way of measuring retention by measuring how much faster one relearns material that has been previously learned and then forgotten
long-term memory
unlimited storage information to be maintained for long periods, even for life
flashbulb memories
a vivid memory about an emotionally significant event, usually a historic or other notable event (ex. Pearl harbor)
cluster
the tendency for items to be consistently grouped together in the course of recall
schema
a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Simply put, a schema describes patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world.
conceptual hierarchy
a collection of objects, events, or other items with common properties arranged in a multilevel structure. Concepts on the higher levels have broad meanings, whereas those at lower levels are more specific.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
a state in which one cannot quite recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning.
reality monitoring
processes involved in distinguishing internally generated information from information presented in the external world
source monitoring
type of memory error where a specific remembered experience is incorrectly decided to be the source of memory
Psychological Testing Intelligence Tests
IQ test, measures peoples’ cognitive functioning
aptitude tests
an exam used to determine an individual’s skill or tendency to succeed in a given activity
Achievement Tests Personality Tests
procedure used to measure a subject’s attainment of knowledge or skills
standardization
process of making something conform to a standard (standardized testing, everyone takes same test with same factors)
percentile score
the percent of scores in a distribution which are lower
reliability
consistency of the findings or results of a psych research study
validity
a judgement or estimate of how well a test measures what it purports to measure in a particular context
content validity
the degree to which an assessment instrument is relevant to, and representative of, the targeted construct it is designed to measure
Criterion-Related Validity IQ
evaluates how accurately a test measures the outcome it was designed to measure
binet-simon test
intelligence and school performance
Stanford-Binet Test Wechsler Test
standard IQ test
normal distribution standard
15 IQ points
intellectual disability
neurodevelopmental disorders that begin in childhood and are characterized by intellectual difficulties as well as difficulties in conceptual, social, and practical areas of living
reaction range
the theory that an individual’s responses as well as attitudes vary depending on both genetic factors and environmental factors
Heritability of Intelligence
the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics.
motivation
the desire to act in service of a goal
homeostasis
a state of balance among all the body systems needed for the body to survive and function correctly.
drive theory
based on the principle that organisms are born with certain psychological needs and that a negative state of tension is created when these needs are not satisfied
drive
an urgent basic need pressing for satisfaction
incentive theory
a behavioral theory that suggests people are motivated by a drive for incentives and reinforcement.
incentive
an external stimulus, such as a condition or an object, that enhances or serves as a motive for behavior
external goals
your motivation to attain your goal comes from a source outside yourself
hunger
a psychological state characterized by a desire to eat.
influences on consumption
Consumer behavior is shaped by psychological factors like perception and attitudes
Sensory-specific Satiety Obesity
the decline in pleasantness associated with a food as it is eaten relative to a food that has not been eaten
set point
involves a set point of happiness, instead of a set point of weight. The set point theory of happiness stated that everyone has a standard level of happiness.
sexual motivation
the impulse to gratify sexual needs, either through direct sexual activity or through apparently unrelated activities
Phases of Sexual Response Refractory
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
parental investment
the investment in offspring by the parent that increases the offspring’s chances of surviving and hence reproductive success at the expense of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring.
sexual orientation
an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes
Continuum of Orientation
the degree of sexual attraction to members of the opposite sex, both sexes, or the same sex
motive
a specific physiological or psychological state of arousal that directs an organism’s energies toward a goal.
emotion
a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral and physiological elements
Cognitive Component Physiological
how we interpret emotions and think about situations. The physiological component is how the body reacts to an emotion
Component Autonomic Arousal
part of pain response, arousal of the autonomic nervous system, particularly its sympathetic nervous system functions, resulting in the physiological symptoms associated with anxiety and fear
Galvanic Skin Response Polygraph
the most well-known use of galvanic skin response is the lie detector test, formally known as the polygraph machine. Along with measuring heart rate, respiration rate, and blood pressure, the polygraph measures galvanic skin response as questions are asked.
theories of emotion
the theories of emotion suggest we have six basic emotions. They include sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust
james-lange theory
physical changes in the body happen before the experience of the associated emotion.
canon-bard theory
stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same time
development
process of developing
zygote
a fertilized egg, or ovum, with a diploid set of chromosomes, half contributed by the mother and half by the father
prenatal period
the developmental period between conception and birth
germinal stage
lasts from conception to implantation of the zygote (fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus, first 2 weeks
embryonic stage
the roughly 6-week period in which the three-layered embryo (gastrula) develops, 2 weeks - 2 months
fetal stage
the final stage of human prenatal development, 2 months to birth
Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Stages
8 stages of development from infancy to adulthood
0-1: trust vs mistrust
1-3: autonomy vs shame/doubt
3-6: initiative vs guilt
7-11: industry vs inferiority
12-18: identity vs confusion
19-29: intimacy vs isolation
30-64: generativity vs stagnation
65+: integrity vs despair
Psychosocial Crisis
predictable tensions that arise as a result of conflicts between socialization and maturation throughout life
Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development
(1) sensorimotor intelligence
(2) preoperational thinking
(3) concrete operational thinking
(4) formal operational thinking
Object Permanence
you know an object or person still exists even when they are hidden and you can’t see or hear them
conservation
prevention
irreversibility
when children are unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events
egocentrism
a state of being unable to see things from anyone’s perspective except your own.
Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development
a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning, 6 stages
Preconventional Level
a period beginning in childhood where an individual has not yet adopted the moral principles of their society or culture.
Conventional Level
the second stage of moral reasoning where individuals base their moral judgments on societal norms and expectations
postconventional level
the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society.
separation anxiety
(SAD) is one of the most common childhood anxiety disorders
attachment
the emotional bond between a human infant or a young nonhuman animal and its parent figure or caregiver
personality
an individual’s unique constellation of consistent behavior
Sigmund Freud
Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating pathologies in the psyche through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.
ego
operates according to the reality principle
id
primitive, instinctive componnet of personality
superego
acts as a self critical conscience, reflecting social standards learned from parents and teachers.
repression (defense mechanism)
an unconscious mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious
denial (defense mechanism)
involves blocking external events from awareness. If some situation is just too much to handle, the person just refuses to experience it
projection (defense mechanism)
this involves individuals projecting their own unacceptable thoughts, feeling and motives to another person
displacement (defense mechanism)
satisfying an impulse (e.g. aggression) with a substitute object
regression (defense mechanism)
in which people seem to return to an earlier developmental stage.
sublimation (defense mechanism)
satisfying an impulse (e.g. aggression) with a substitute object. In a socially acceptable way.
psychosexual stages
oral : infancy-2 yrs
anal: 15 months-3 yrs
phallic: 3 yrs-6 yrs
latency: 6 yrs-puberty
genital: puberty-death
Oedipal Complex
idea that male child desires his mother and fears his father
Levels of Awareness (conscious, preconscious, unconscious)
our feelings, motives, and decision are actually powerfully influenced by our past experiences, and stored in the unconscious. Freud applied these three systems to his structure of the personality, or psyche - the id, ego, and superego.
carl jung
believed that the human psyche had three parts: the ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious (archetypes)
Alfred Adler
central aspect of personality is to strive to adapt and master life’s challenges.
Striving of Superiority
the use of effects to obtain superiority over others. This drive motivates a person to do everything perfect and complete so he may get superiority over the other person.
overcompensation
excessive reaction to a feeling of inferiority, guilt, or inadequacy leading to an exaggerated attempt to overcome the feeling.
Albert Bandura
social cognitive theory
Observational Learning
method of learning that consists of observing and modeling another individual’s behavior, attitudes, or emotional expressions.
Humanistic Personality Theory
focuses on individual’s freedom and potential for growth
Carl Rogers
person-centered theory
self-concept
how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics. example: beliefs such as ‘‘i am a good friend’’
Abraham Maslow
developed a hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation
self-actualization
a concept regarding the process by which an individual reaches his or her full potential.
Hans Eysenck
theory of natural, genetically based personality differences
biological perspective
a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior
Social Psychology
the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.
implicit attitudes
evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self
Explicit Attitudes
attitudes that are at the conscious level, are deliberately formed and are easy to self-report
Cognitive Dissonance
the discomfort a person feels when their behavior does not align with their values or beliefs.
Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others’ behavior. Because of the fundamental attribution error, we tend to believe that others do bad things because they are bad people.
conformity
the tendency for an individual to align their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of the people around them.
Asch’s Line Study
Asch found that people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.
Stanley Milgram
The Milgram experiment proved that people will likely follow orders, even harmful ones, when instructed by an accepted authority figure. (electrical shock, lab coat experiment)
obedience
a form of social influence elicited in response to direct orders from an authority figure.
Philip Zimbardo
Zimbardo is probably best known for his 1971 Stanford prison experiment,
which demonstrated the power of social situations to influence people’s behavior.
Stanford Prison Experiment
While the prisoners and guards were allowed to interact in any way they wanted, the interactions were hostile or even dehumanizing
Bystander Effect
onlookers will become less likely to help a person in need if other people are present
Diffusion of Responsibility
occurs when people who need to make a decision wait for someone else to act instead
stress
a biological and psychological response experienced upon encountering a threat that we feel we do not have the resources to deal with.
Health Psychology
focuses on how biological, social and psychological factors influence health and illness
frustration
a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment
pressure
the psychological stress or external demands that individuals experience in a situation where they feel the need to perform well or meet certain expectations
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
a psychological conflict that arises when a goal is perceived as both desirable and undesirable (good and bad)
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
times when an individual wants to avoid making a decision between two options that are both objectionable (bad and bad)
Approach-Approach Conflict
when there’s conflict within a person where he or she needs to decide between two goals that are both appealing (good and good)
Holmes & Rahe Study
measures your stress level and how likely you are to get sick
Optimal level of arousal
where they feel alert and engaged but not stressed
General Adaptation Syndrome
describes the process your body goes through when you are exposed to any kind of stress, positive or negative
Catharsis
a process of releasing negative emotions such as grief and anger, thereby relieving the adverse psychological impact of these emotions
Constructive Coping
any instrumental approach to stress management that is generally considered to be adaptive or otherwise positive.
Optimism
a tendency to expect good things in the future
Catastrophic Thinking
when your brain engages your imagination and creates worst-case scenarios
Type A Personality
traits like ambition, drive, and competitiveness
Type B Personality
easygoing, relaxed and highly flexible
burnout
a psychological syndrome emerging as a prolonged response to chronic interpersonal stressors on the job
