PSYCH FINAL Flashcards
Understand the role, according to psychologists, of nature and nurture in the lives of humans.
Psychologists recognize nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) as jointly shaping human development. Nature contributes traits and predispositions, while nurture encompasses experiences and upbringing, both influencing behavior and traits. The interplay of these factors varies among individuals, emphasizing the complex and interconnected nature of human development.
Define theory and hypothesis, and understand the difference.
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on empirical evidence and has stood up to repeated testing and scrutiny.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction that proposes a relationship between variables and serves as the basis for experimentation.
In short, a theory is a broad, well-established explanation, while a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction.
Understand the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
The independent variable is manipulated in an experiment, while the dependent variable is the outcome that is measured or observed. The independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable.
Differentiate the various schools of thought in Psychology.
Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic: Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.
Behavioral: Focuses on observable behaviors and the impact of external stimuli on behavior, often through conditioning.
Cognitive: Examines mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving as key to understanding behavior.
Humanistic: Highlights the importance of individual
experience, personal growth, and self-actualization.
Biological/Neuroscience: Investigates the influence of biological factors, such as genetics and brain structures, on behavior and mental processes.
Evolutionary: Explores how behaviors and mental processes have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction.
Sociocultural: Considers the impact of culture, society, and social influences on behavior and mental processes.
Understand the function of circadian rhythms.
Circadian rhythms are internal biological clocks that regulate the sleep-wake cycle and other physiological processes over a roughly 24-hour period, influencing alertness, hormone production, and various bodily functions.
Recognize the features of the sleep disorders.
nsomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Sleep Apnea: Brief interruptions in breathing during sleep.
Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep during waking hours.
Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS): Uncomfortable sensations in the legs, causing an irresistible urge to move them.
Parasomnias: Abnormal behaviors during sleep, such as sleepwalking or night terrors.
Nightmares: Disturbing dreams that wake a person from sleep.
Hypersomnia: Excessive daytime sleepiness, leading to long naps or difficulty staying awake.
Circadian Rhythm Disorders: Disruptions in the natural sleep-wake cycle, often due to shift work or jet lag.
Identify the various dream theories discussed in class.
Freudian/Psychoanalytic Theory: Dreams as expressions of unconscious desires and conflicts.
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random neural activity, and the brain tries to make sense of it.
Cognitive Theory: Dreams reflect thoughts, concerns, and knowledge, aiding in problem-solving and memory consolidation.
Neurobiological Theory: Emphasizes the role of brain activity and neurotransmitters in dream generation.
Evolutionary Theory: Dreams as adaptive, serving survival and cognitive functions.
Cultural/Social Theory: Dreams influenced by cultural and social factors, reflecting societal norms and experiences.
Identify the theories of Freud, Piaget and Erikson with regard to human development.
Freud (Psychosexual): Personality development through resolving conflicts in oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages.
Piaget (Cognitive): Cognitive development in sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
Erikson (Psychosocial): Social and emotional development across trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity stages.
Understand the three types of infant temperament/four types of infant attachment.
Three Types of Infant Temperament:
Easy: Positive mood, adaptable.
Difficult: Intense reactions, slow adaptability.
Slow-to-warm-up: Low activity level, initial withdrawal, gradual adaptation.
Four Types of Infant Attachment:
Secure: Comfortable with caregiver, distressed when separated, easily soothed upon return.
Insecure-Avoidant: Avoids caregiver, minimal distress when separated, indifferent upon return.
Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant: Clings to caregiver, upset when separated, difficult to soothe upon return.
Insecure-Disorganized: No consistent way of coping with stress, often associated with inconsistent caregiving.
Understand the classical conditioning formula of learning.
Classical Conditioning Formula:
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
+
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
→
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Neutral Stimulus (NS)+Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)→Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Example:
Bell (NS)
+
Food (UCS)
→
Salivation (UCR)
Bell (NS)+Food (UCS)→Salivation (UCR)
Recognize the function of reinforcers and punishers in operant conditioning.
Reinforcers: Increase likelihood of behavior by providing a positive consequence.
Punishers: Decrease likelihood of behavior by introducing a negative consequence.
Understand observational learning.
Observational Learning:
Learning by watching others and imitating their behaviors, influenced by reinforcement and punishment experienced by the model.
Identify the theories of Gardner and Sternberg with regard to human intelligence.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences:
Intelligence is diverse, involving distinct capacities such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and more.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory:
Intelligence comprises analytical (problem-solving), practical (everyday tasks), and creative (novelty and adaptability) components.
Recognize the criteria which must be met for a diagnosis of mental retardation.
Validity: The extent to which an IQ test measures what it intends to measure.
Reliability: Consistency and stability of IQ test results over time and across different situations.
Standardization: Uniform administration and scoring procedures to ensure fairness and consistency in IQ test administration.
Identify the theories of motivation discussed in class.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
Individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, ranging from basic physiological requirements to higher-level psychological needs.
Drive-Reduction Theory:
Motivation arises from the need to satisfy biological drives, leading to homeostasis.
Arousal Theory:
Individuals seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal or stimulation.
Expectancy-Value Theory:
Motivation is influenced by the expectation of success and the perceived value of the goal.
Self-Determination Theory:
People are motivated by a need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Motivation to reduce discomfort caused by conflicting beliefs or attitudes.
Hierarchy of Motives (Murray):
Psychogenic needs range from primary biological needs to higher-level psychological needs.
Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg):
Motivational factors (job satisfaction) and hygiene factors (job dissatisfaction) contribute independently to motivation.
