Psych Final Flashcards
Attachment Styles
- Secure: child uses parent as a secure base from which to explore. Caregivers are sensitive and responsive and child was distressed when mother left, happy to see them when they returned.
- Avoidant: unresponsive to parent, doesn’t use the parent as a secure base and doesn’t care if parent leaves. Child was slow to show positive reaction when mother returned which is common when caregivers are insensitive and inattentive to needs.
- Resistant: show clingy behavior, but then reject mother’s attempts to interact with them. Child didn’t explore toys, became extremely disturbed and angry when mother left, difficult to comfort when mother returned which is common when caregiver is inconsistent with level of response.
- Disorganized: shows odd behavior around caregivers like freezing and running around erratically when mother left and tried to run away when mother returned. Common when child is being abused.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1): trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as
nourishment and affection, will be met - Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
(1 – 3): Develop a sense of independence in many tasks - Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 6): Take initiative on some activities - may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped
- Industry vs. Inferiority (7 – 11 years): Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.
- Identity vs. Confusion (12 – 18 years): Experiment with and develop identity and roles
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (19 – 29): Establish intimacy and relationships with others
- Generatively vs. Stagnation (30 – 64): Contribute to society and be part of a family
- Integrity vs. Despair (65+): Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
- (0 – 2) Sensorimotor: World experienced
through senses and
actions. Object permanence, stranger anxiety - (2 – 6) Pre-operational: Use words and images
to represent things, but
lack logical reasoning.
Pretend play, egocentrism, language
development - (7 – 11) Concrete Operational: Understand concrete
events and analogies
logically, perform
arithmetical operations.
Conversation,
mathematical
transformations - (12 +) Formal
Operational:
Formal operations,
utilize abstract reasoning.
Abstract logic, moral
reasoning
Assimilation and Accommodation
Part of the Cognitive Theory (piaget). Believed that children develop schemata (concepts used to categorize and interpret information) to help them understand the world. When they learn new information, children adjust their schemata through assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation: incorporates information into existing schemata
Accommodation: change schemata based on new
information
Parenting Styles
Authoritative style: parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and
affection, and listen to the child’s point of view
Authoritarian style: parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express
little warmth to the child
Permissive style: parents make few demands and rarely use punishment
Uninvolved style: parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation: the wants or needs that direct behavior towards a goal
Intrinsic motivation: arises from internal factors. Behaviors are performed because they bring a sense of personal satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation: arises from external factors. Behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.
Social Motives
Need for achievement:
drives accomplishment
and performance
Need for affiliation:
encourages positive
interactions with others
Need for intimacy: causes us to seek deep,
meaningful relationships
Masters and Johnson
Conducted a study of physiological responses during sexual behavior.
- Observed people engaging in sexual behavior
- Measured physiological variables (EX: blood
pressure, respiration)
- Measured sexual arousal (EX: vaginal lubrication and penile tumescence)
Sexual response cycle:
1. Excitement – arousal phase (erection, lubrication)
2. Plateau – increased swelling and blood to labia minora, pre-ejaculatory fluid
3. Orgasm – rhythmic contractions, ejaculation
4. Resolution – return to unaroused state
Theories of Emotion
- James-Lange Theory: emotions arise from physiological arousal
- See snake = heart/ respiration rate increase
(physiological arousal)= feeling of fear - Cannon-Bard Theory – physiological arousal and
emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently
- See snake= physiological arousal and feel fear - Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: emotions are comprised of two factors: physiological and cognitive.
- Physiological arousal is interpreted in the context leading to the emotional experience
- See snake= physiological arousal/ cognitive assessment of the situation that labels the arousal as fear= experience fear - Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory: emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus
- Unlike the Schachter-Singer model, the appraisal occurs before the label
- Appraisal is immediate and unconscious
Cultural Display Rule
Culturally specific standards that
govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable.
- Despite varying cultural display rules, recognition and production of facial expressions of certain emotions are
universal.
Personality
the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to think, feel, and behave in specific ways
Psychodynamic Perspectives
Sigmund Freud: first comprehensive theory of personality that explained both normal and abnormal behaviors
- Proposed that unconscious drives
influenced by sex, aggression, and
childhood sexuality affected
personality
-Neo-Freudians agreed that childhood
experiences matter
-But less emphasis on sex
- More focus on the social environment
and the effects of culture on
personality
Defense Mechanisms
Projection: Attributing unacceptable desires to others
Regression: Returning to coping
strategies for less mature stages of development
Repression: suppressing painful memories and thoughts
Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable desires through socially acceptable channels
Displacement: Transferring inappropriate urges or behaviors onto a more acceptable or less threatening target
Behavioral Perspective
- Learning approaches to personality focus on
observable, measurable phenomena - Skinner – we learn to behave in particular ways
- Personality is shaped by reinforcements and
consequences in the environment - Personality develops over our entire life
- Personality can vary as we experience new situations
Individualist vs. Collectivist Cultures
Individualist cultures: value independence, competition, and personal achievement
- Mainly Western nations (U.S., England, Australia)
- People display more personally oriented personality traits
Collectivist cultures – value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs
- Asia, Africa, and South America
- People display more socially oriented personality traits
Situationism
the view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings
Dispositionism
The view that our behavior is determined by internal factors (attribute of a person such as personality traits and temperament
Fundamental attribution error
tendency to overemphasize internal factors as explanations/attributions for the behavior of other people and underestimate the power of the situation
Zimbardo
- Conducted by Philip Zimbardo and demonstrated the power of
social roles, norms, and scripts - A mock prison was constructed and participants (male college
students), were randomly assigned to play the role of prisoners or
guards - In a very short amount of time, the guards started to harass the
prisoner in an increasingly sadistic manner - Prisoners began to show signs of severe anxiety and hopelessness
- The two-week study had to be ended after six days
- Social norms required guards to be authoritarian and prisoners to
be submissive - Scripts influenced the way guards degraded the prisoners by
making them do push-ups and removing privacy
Cognitive Dissonance
Psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions
Central and Peripheral Route
Central Route: logic driven, uses data and facts
- Direct route to persuasion focusing on the quality of information
- Works best when audience is analytical and willing to engage in processing the information
Peripheral Route: indirect route, uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message
- Uses characteristics such as positive emotion or celebrity
endorsement
- Results in less permanent attitude change
Asch
Conformity – the change in a
person’s behavior to go along
with the group, even if he does
not agree with the group
Asch’s Experiment:
- These line segments
illustrate the judgment
task in Asch’s conformity
study
Asch effect: the influence of the
group majority on an individual’s
judgement
- In Asch’s study there was one naive
subject, the rest were confederates
who purposely gave the wrong
answer
- 76% of participants conformed to
group pressure at least once by also
indicating the incorrect line
The size of the majority: the greater the majority, the more likely an individual will conform
The presence of another dissenter: causes conformity rates to drop to near zero
The public or private nature of the responses: public responses cause more conformity than private
Milgram
Obedience – the change of an individual’s behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure
- The Milgram experiment showed the surprising degree to which people obey authority
- Participants were told to shock “learners” (confederate) for giving a wrong answer to test items
- Participants believed they were giving the learners shocks, which increased all the way up to 450 volts
- Two out of three (65%) participants continued to administer shocks to an unresponsive learner
Kitty Genovese
Kitty Genovese (1964) – Attacked and killed with a knife outside her apartment building
- Residents in the apartment building heard her scream
for help numerous times but did nothing
- Bystander Effect: phenomenon in which a witness/bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress
- Based on the social situation, not personality variables
- Diffusion of responsibility: tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group
Locus of Control
- Locus of control: beliefs about the power we have in our lives
- Internal locus of control: tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts
- External locus of control: tend to believe that our outcomes are
outside of our control - Believe lives are controlled by other people, luck, or chance
Big Five Personality Traits
Each trait is scored on a continuum from high to low
-The first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN
-Openness to experience: imagination, feelings, actions, ideas. Low score= prefers routine and more practical and conventional.
-Conscientiousness: competence, self, disipline, thoughtfulness, goal-driven High+ hardworking, dependable, organized Low= impulsive, careless, disorganizes
-Extroversion= sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression
-Agreeableness= cooperative, worthy, good nature hgih= helpful and empathetic low= critical, uncooperative
-Neuroticism= tendency toward unstable emotions high= anxious unhappy low= calm even tempered
Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology
A branch of psychology that studies how
human behavior and psychology effect work and how they are affected by
work.
Industrial psychology: Studies job characteristics, applicant characteristics, and how to match them; also studies employee training and performance appraisal
Organizational psychology: Studies interactions between people working in organizations and effects of those interactions on productivity
- Interested in worker satisfaction, motivation, commitment, management and leadership styles, social norms and role expectations
Human Factors Psychology
Studies how workers interact with the tools of work and how to design those tools to optimize workers’ productivity, safety, and health
Hawthorne Effect
The increase in performance of
individuals who are noticed, watched, and paid attention to by researchers or supervisors
Kurt Lewin
Researched effects of leadership styles, team structure, and team dynamics
- Studied group interactions,
cooperation, competition, and
communication
- Coined the term “group dynamics
Telecommuting
employees’ ability to set their own hours allowing them to work from home at different parts of the day
- increased conflict between work and family because there is no seperation between home and work life
Primary appraisal
Judgement about the degree of potential harm/threat to well-being that a stressor may entail
- Threat: stressor that could lead to harm, loss, or negative consequences
- Challenge: stressor that carries the potential for gain or personal growth
- EX: graduating college can be a threat or challenge
Secondary Appraisal
Judgement of the options available to
cope with a stressor, and perceptions of how effective such options will be
- A threat is less stressful if we believe something can be
done about it
Flight-or-fight response
A set of physiological reactions that
occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat
- These reactions are produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous
system and the endocrine system
- The arousal prepares the person to either fight or flee from a perceived threat
- An adaptive response that helps species survival
General Adaptation Syndrome
The body’s nonspecific physiological
response to stress.
1. Alarm reaction – the body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency
- Physiological reactions that provide energy to manage the situation
2. Stage of resistance – the body has adapted (readjusted) to
the stressor, but remains alert and prepared to respond (with
less intensity)
- Physiological reactions diminish
3. Stage of exhaustion – person can no longer adapt to the stressor (depletion of physical resources) because of the
physical toll on the body’s tissues and organs
Problem-focused coping
Individual attempts to manage or alter
the problem that is causing them to experience stress
Emotion-Focused Coping
Efforts to change or reduce the negative
emotions associated with stress
Learned Helplessness
An acquired belief that one is
powerless to do anything about a situation
- Seligman’s experiment, dogs were placed in a chamber
where they received electric shocks they could not escape
- Later, when they were given the opportunity to escape, most dogs gave up and didn’t try
Flow
A particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake
- Feeling of losing oneself in an activity
- State of effortless concentration and focus
- Feels like time passes more quickly than usual
- Usually related to creative or leisure activities
- Experienced by people who like their job or students who love studying
- Typically occurs when people engage in challenging activities that require skills and knowledge they know they possess
- Thought to play a key role in happiness
DSM (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
DSM-5 is the classification system used by most mental health professionals
-Diagnostic features: overview of
the disorder
-Diagnostic criteria: specific
symptoms required for diagnosis
-Prevalence: percent of population
thought to be afflicted
-Risk factors: Provides information about comorbidity (the co-occurrence of two disorders)
Biological Perspective
View psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena:
- Genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities
- Supported by evidence that most
psychological disorders have a genetic component
- A person’s risk of developing
schizophrenia increases if a
relative has schizophrenia
- The closer the genetic
relationship, the higher the risk
Diathesis Stress Model
integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder
- People with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (diathesis)
are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events
- A diathesis can be a biological or psychological vulnerability
Anxiety Disorders
characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety and by related disturbances in behavior
- treated with anti-anxiety agents like Xanax, Valium, Ativan (Benzodiazepines) Buspar (non-Benzodiazepine)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
a relatively continuous state of
excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension.
Symptoms: restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties
Major Depressive Disorder
-depressed mood most of the day,
nearly every day
-Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities
-At least 5 symptoms for at least a 2-week period
- Symptoms cause significant distress or impair normal functioning and are not caused by substances or a medical condition
- Major depressive disorder is episodic (symptoms are usually present at their full magnitude for a certain period of time and then gradually diminish)
Symptoms:
- Weight loss or weight gain/increased or decreased
appetite
- Difficulty falling asleep or too much sleep
- Psychomotor agitation or psychomotor retardation
- Fatigue/loss of energy
- Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
- Difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness
- Suicidal ideation – thoughts of death, thinking about/planning suicide, suicide attempt
Depression
intense and persistent sadness.
Subtypes:
-Seasonal pattern: applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year
- Peripartum onset (postpartum depression): major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth
- Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia): depressed
moods most of the day nearly every day
or at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depression
- treated with anti depressants like paxil prozac Zoloft (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, [SSRIs]); Tofranil and Elavil (tricyclics)
Bipolar Disorder
- involves mood states that fluctuate between depression and mania
- Symptoms of mania: extreme talkativeness, excessive irritability,
exhibit flight of ideas, easily distracted, exhibit grandiosity, show little need for sleep, take on several tasks at once, engage in reckless behaviors - treated with lithium and other mood stablizaers like depakote, lamictal, and tegretol
Schizophrenia
a psychotic disorder, or one in which the person’s thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where they are not able to function normally in life.
Symptoms:
Hallucinations: perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation
Delusions: beliefs that are contrary to reality
- Paranoid delusions: belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm them
- Grandiose delusions: belief that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important
- Somatic delusions: belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one’s body
-Disorganized thinking: disjointed and incoherent thought
processes
-Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior : unusual behaviors/movements
- Catatonic behaviors: decreased reactivity to the environment
- Negative Symptoms: decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, drives
- antipsychotics are used to treat it
Haldol, Mellaril, Prolixin, Thorazine, Abilify, Risperdal, Clozaril
Borderline Personality Disorder
characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity
Symptoms:
- Cannot tolerate the thought of being alone – will make
frantic efforts to avoid abandonment or separation
- Relationships are intense and unstable
- Unstable view of self – might suddenly display a shift in
personal attitudes, interests, career plans, and choice of
friends
- May be highly impulsive and may engage in reckless
and self-destructive behaviors
- May sometimes show intense and inappropriate anger
- Can be moody, sarcastic, bitter and verbally abusive
Antipsychotics
Treat positive psychotic symptoms such as auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia by blocking the neurotransmitter dopamine.
Long-term use can lead to tardive dyskinesia, involuntary movements of the arms, legs, tongue and facial muscles, resulting in Parkinson’s-like tremors
Anti-depressants
Alter levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine. Headache, nausea, weight gain, drowsiness, reduced sex drive, Tricyclics: dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, drowsiness, reduced sex drive, increased risk of suicide
Anti-anxiety agents
Depress central nervous system activity. Drowsiness, dizziness, headache, fatigue, lightheadedness.
Mood Stabilizers
Bipolar, treat episodes of mania as well as depression, excessive thirst, irregular heartbeat, itching/rash, swelling (face, mouth, and extremities), nausea, loss of appetite
Stimulants
ADHD, improve ability to focus on a task and maintain attention, decreased appetite, difficulty sleeping, stomachache, headache
Unconditional positive regard
therapist does not judge clients and simply accepts them for who they are. This is part of humanistic therapy and was created by Carl Rogers.IN client- centered therapy, therapists use unconditional positive regard.
Systematic desensitization
type of exposure therapy wherein
a calm and pleasant state is gradually associated with
increasing levels of anxiety-inducing stimuli
Cognitive Perspective
Personality traits are developed through learning and cognition (behavioral perspective is another one)
- Observational learning plays a role in development of personality and self efficacy as well. Which is our level of confidence in our own abilities developed through social experiences.
Humanistic Perspective
Perspective that emphasizes the potential for good innate within all humans . How healthy people develop, share similar characteristics like being creative, open, loving, compassionate, and accepting
- Carl Rogers proposed ideas regarding self concept (thought and feelings about our ideal and real self), congruence between these two gives us happiness.
Evolutionary Perspective
our personalities and individual differences have evolved, in part, to provide us with some form of adaptive advantage in the context of survival and reproduction.
Cross Cultural Perspective
looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior. While many aspects of human thought and behavior are universal, cultural differences can lead to often surprising differences in how people think, feel, and act
