PSYCH EXAM 2

Question 1

what are sensations?

Answer 1

sensations is the ability to detect things we have not assigned meaning to. In simpler terms it is the process of noticing things through our senses; smelling, tasting, touching, hearing, and seeing.

example: feeling the warmth of the sun on your skin

Question 2

What are perceptions?

Answer 2

The ability to add meaning to something you sensed. In simpler terms, it is the process of making sense of those sensations and figuring out what it means.

Example: the warmth on your skin means it is a sunny day

Question 3

what is the difference between sensation and perception?

Answer 3

sensation is physical basically and perception is all the mental process behind it.

for example, when we see a cup of water on a table our sensation which in this case is seeing, sends a signal to our brain on what we should do with it (perception).

another example: taste/texture sensations: warm, thick, sweet, slightly butter.
-taste/ texture perception- chocolate.

Question 4

what is light?

Answer 4

Light comes from a source, such as the sun, and hits objects. Objects absorb some of the energy, but also reflect some. Some of that reflected light enters our eyes, which is what enables us to see the object

Question 5

how does the wavelength and amplitude of light relate our experiences of colour/brightness?

Answer 5

Wavelength – the distance from one energy peak to another = colour
Amplitude/Intensity – how much energy is transmitted =brightness

simpler terms:
Wavelength of light which tells us what color we see.
Amplitude of light which tell us how bright or dim it is

wavelengths tells us the amount of energy

basically wavelengths and amplitudes measure the intensity and brightness of a colour

Question 6

how is the amount of light that enters our eye controlled?

Answer 6

PUPIL REFLEX:

Light then has to be focused on your retina by the lens, which changes shape depending on whether you are looking at an object that is close to you or far away.
(photoreceptors)
in bright light the pupil gets smaller to protect the eye and reduce light intake. while in dim light it gets bigger to allow more light in.

Light then has to be focused on your retina by the lens, which changes shape depending on whether you are looking at an object that is close to you or far away.
-For near objects, the lens gets shorter and fatter. For far objects, it becomes long and thin. (this is a reflex. Called accommodation)

Question 7

How does light get translated into the electrochemical language of the brain by photoreceptors, the rod and cone cells?

Answer 7

The light sensitive sensory neurons in the retina (the photoreceptors) contain chemicals that react to light (photopigments). These chemicals break down when exposed to light, causing a chemical change in the cell that results in action potentials

Question 8

difference between rods and cones

Answer 8

Rods: 92m rod cells, edge of retina, more sensitive to light than cones, night vision

Cones: 4.6m cone cells, central (primarily in the fovea), less sensitive than rods need more light to work, color vision, fine detail

You have more rod cells than cone cells in each retina

The rods are around the edges of your retinas (peripheral vision) whereas cones are packed in the center (fovea; central vision).

Rods work well in low light; cones do not. But cones pick out small, fine details and create the sensation of color; rods do not.
So, at night and in your peripheral vision, it is hard to see small details and sense colors

Question 9

what is the process of dark adaptation?

Answer 9

-The process through which you are gradually able to see
more and more effectively in the dark.
-the more time you spend in the dark the more that photo pigment gets put back in until you have enough to capture a small amount of light.
-happens independently for each eye/retina

Question 10

Describe what the interneurons in your retinas (the bipolar and ganglion cells) detect (edges) and where they send their messages (from the retina, through the optic nerve, to the rest of the brain).

Answer 10

By combining the activity of several photoreceptor cells, a
ganglion cell (in the retina) can detect simple features of the
world (edges). That information about where the edges are is
then transmitted from the retina to the brain, through the optic
nerve.

Question 11

where are the blindspots in our retinas and why arent we usually aware of our visual blindspots?

Answer 11

Everyone has a spot in their retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye. In this area there are no light-sensitive cells so this part of your retina can’t see.

Most of the time you don’t notice your blind spot because the spot in one eye doesn’t match the spot in the other eye.

Question 12

describe an agnosia- give examples (brain damage and the visual system)

Answer 12

an example of an agnosia would be Prosopagnosia
Prosopagnosia the inability to process faces
→ people with prosopagnosia often learn to use other cues to recognize people, such as: voices and gait, clothes, and general body size and shape

-akinetopsia→the inability to perceive moving objects

Stimultanagnosia→ the inability to perceive or identify more than one object at a tim

Question 13

what is the trichchromatic theory?

Answer 13

he trichromatic theory of color vision says that human eyes only perceive three colors of light: red, blue, and green. The wavelengths of these three colors can be combined to create every color on the visible light spectrum.

A ‘red’ object is not actually red. It just reflects a wavelength of
electro-magnetic radiation that your visual system perceives as
red.
 Cone cells are involved in our sense of colour. There are
three different types of cone cell, one that is maximally
responsive to short wavelengths of light (420 nm ~ ‘blue’), one to
medium (530 nm ~ ‘green’) and one to long (560 nm ~ ‘red’).
 Each type of cell has a different type of photopigment.
But, that can’t be the whole story.

Question 14

what is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing in perception?

Answer 14

→ bottom- up processing: This approach starts with sensory input. It involves perceiving objects by analyzing the raw data from the senses, such as colors, shapes, and lines.
example: so when you first see a flower you first notice its colour and shape before recognizing it as a flower.

→top-down processing: This approach uses prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations to interpret sensory information. It involves processing information from the brain to make sense of what we see.
Example: If you see a flower in a familiar setting, your brain quickly identifies it as a flower based on context and previous experiences.

Question 15

five Gestalt principles of top-down organization in perception

Answer 15

The law of proximity– things are close together and are grouped together.

The law of similarity– things that share the same (shape) are grouped together.

The law of closure (whole not parts) if you can. →tend to fill in the blanks

The law of good continuation– we prefer to think of objects as having smooth continuous contours (gradually- changing outlines), rather than outlines that abruptly change.

The law of common fate– objects that move together are grouped together.
→ put things together as they belong together

in simpler terms, we group parts of what were looking at together if they: They are close together
 They look the same- law of similiarity
 They look like they are separate parts of an object just with a missing piece- law of closure
 They don’t involve abrupt changes of direction- the law of continuation
 They move in the same direction- the law of common fate

Question 16

variety of monocular cues to depth

Answer 16

Our retinas really only have 2 dimensions, and yet our perception is of a world in 3 dimensions.

-occlusion– when one object seems to block our view of another, we perceive that object as closer to us.

-linear perspective– parallel lines converge as they get further away

-atmospheric perspective- far away objects are bluish and hazy

-texture gradients- the texture of closer objects is coarser and rougher (you can see more of the details) than the texture of objects that are further away. Details are smoothed out when we are far away. → notice that the pattern of cobblestones becomes increasingly smooth as you get further away.

Relative height- objects that are higher up in the visual field tend to be further away (atleast, below the horizon)
Motion parallax- in front of the focal point, closer objects appear to move faster than ones further away.

Question 17

how is size perception based on both bottom-up and top-down processing?

how this explains visual illusions?

Answer 17

Because perceived size is a combination of something’s retinal size and how far away it seems, by manipulating various depth cues, we can create illusions that fool your
system into ‘seeing’ objects as larger than they really are.
 So, some visual illusions are created by making you think objects are further away from you, even though they aren’t.
 Others can be created by making you think objects are the same distance from you, even though they are not.

Question 18

what is sound?

Answer 18

Sound is a form of physical energy caused by vibrations
causing waves of molecules in some physical substance or
medium (usually the gases that make up air).

Question 19

how is frequency and wavelength related?

Answer 19

they are both related because the relationship between both is inversely proportional: as frequency increases, wavelength decreases, vice versa. So they work together.

Frequency is how many waves pass by in one second.
Wavelength is the distance between two waves.

Question 20

how does the frequency and amplitude of a soundwave relate to the pitch and volume of sounds we hear?

Answer 20

frequency determines the pitch (how high or low a sound is), while amplitude determines the volume (how loud or soft a sound is).

Question 21

what are the roles of the pinna and three small bones behind the ear drum?

Answer 21

role of the pinna:helps to focus sound into the auditory canal. The sound reaches the ear drum (tympanic membrane) and causes it to begin vibrating.

role of the three small bones (hammer, anvil and stapes): Those bones magnify the vibration and pass it to the inner ear, where the cochlea receives
it.

Question 22

how is our sense of pitch created by auditory sensory neurons in the cochlea?

Answer 22

When the stapes vibrates, it passes that vibration into the cochlea through an opening. In the cochlea the vibration causes fluid to move, which stimulates receptor cells (sensory neurons for hearing)

Once the vibrations cause the fluid inside the cochlea to ripple, a traveling wave forms along the basilar membrane. Hair cells—sensory cells sitting on top of the basilar membrane—ride the wave. Hair cells near the wide end of the snail-shaped cochlea detect higher-pitched sounds, such as an infant crying

Question 23

as we age, why do we lose our ability to detect high-pitched sounds before losing the ability to detect low-pitched sounds?

Answer 23

As we age, we tend to lose our ability to hear high-pitched sounds before low-pitched ones due to the increased vulnerability of high-frequency hair cells in the cochlea, reduced blood flow to the inner ear, and changes in how the brain processes sound.

Question 24

provide examples on how what we hear is a combination of bottom-up and top-down processing.

Answer 24

bottom-up processing begins with sensory
neurons
example: Recognizing a Song: When you hear a tune, your ears catch the individual notes, and your brain figures out what song it is based on those sounds.

top-down processing is from previous experiences and expectations
example: Hearing Your Name in a Crowd: At a busy party, if someone calls your name, you can pick it out from all the chatter because you expect to hear it.

combined
Having a Conversation: When someone talks to you, your ears hear the words, but your brain also uses the context and what you already know to understand the meaning, even if some words are a bit unclear.

Question 25

How does attention relate to conciousness and how experiments on dichotic listening can be used to study attention?

Answer 25

attention relates to consciousness because consciousness is our overall awareness of thoughts and surroundings, while attention is the ability to focus on specific things; together, attention helps us filter what we are consciously aware of at any moment.

experiments on dichotic listening can be used to study attention because these studies attempt to investigate how much information people can pay attention to at once (how much we can hold in conscious awareness), as well as what happens to
material that we cannot pay attention to.

Question 26

what were the key findings on studies from Dichotic listening? what can and cannot be detected in an “unshadowed” message?

Answer 26

It is not easy to recall much information if we don’t really pay attention to it in the first place. Therefore, generally, people cannot recall much, if anything, from the unshadowed message. This is even true if the unshadowed
message is short and repetitive.

Question 27

what is the “cocktail party effect”?

Answer 27

refers to our ability to focus on a single conversation or sound in a noisy environment, like a crowded party.

The cocktail party effect is when you can focus on one conversation in a noisy place, like a party, while ignoring other sounds. It shows how our brain can tune out background noise and pay attention to what’s important, like your friend’s voice. We can even notice something significant, like hearing our name, which can pull our attention back to the surrounding sounds.

Question 28

what is the concept of automaticity? provide examples.

Answer 28

Many tasks require much conscious effort to learn at first, but require little ‘thought’ and become relatively automatic with
practice. basically the ability to process without attention

Our brains are actually constantly performing tasks without bringing them to our attention, including some things that we can take conscious control of, such as breathing.

another example: An example of automaticity is driving a car. When you first learn to drive, you have to concentrate on every action—steering, shifting gears, checking mirrors. However, after practicing for a while, you can drive without consciously thinking about each step. You can have conversations, listen to music, or even think about other things while still safely navigating the road.

Question 29

what does “subliminal perception” mean? what kinds of influence does subliminal information have on us?

Answer 29

In simple terms, subliminal perception is when we pick up on information without being aware of it, allowing it to affect our thoughts and actions without us realizing.
This happens when stimuli (such as images, words, or sounds) are presented below the threshold of conscious perception—so briefly or subtly that we don’t consciously notice them.

The influence of subliminal information can vary depending on the nature of the stimulus and the person receiving it. the influence can affect our decision making, memory, learning, and mood and emotions.

Question 30

what is the effect of subliminal visual and auditory presentations of words and images?

Answer 30

Subliminal images and sounds can subtly affect our mood, thoughts, and choices, but their impact is usually small and temporary, mainly supporting what we’re already inclined to feel or do.

for example: song yelling to brush our teeth, wont make us wont to do that more, but we are all different so maybe others will.

Question 31

How is sleep a biological rhythm? how is it reset by light?

Answer 31

Our sleep-wake patterns are one example of a circadian rhythm, governed by distinct parts of our brains.

-bright light plays a key role in telling you when to sleep. Once you move to another time zone, light gradually resets your rhythm so that you sleep and wake at the right time.

Question 32

what are the various stages and characteristics of sleep? including the different brainwaves produced in different stages of sleep.

Answer 32

The sleep part of your sleep-wake cycle, which lasts approximately eight hours, contains five distinct stages of sleep.

While you are awake, your brain waves are frequent and of low amplitude. All the different parts of the brain are processing
different information at different times. As you fall deeper and deeper into sleep, your brain waves
become larger, but less frequent. This pattern – infrequent waves of large amplitude – is characteristic of synchronised
waves of brain activity. The different parts of your brain are now sending signals at the same time.

stage 1 brainwaves: theta waves
stage 2 brainwaves: sleep spindles
stage 3 and 4 brainwaves: slow-wave sleep–> progressively more delta waves
Stage 5 aka REM sleep: low-voltage, high- frequency waves

Question 33

explain ideas about the function and adaptive significance of deep sleep (stages 3-4).

Answer 33

it overall supports the body and the mind. It is a way to rest our minds because our brains need to restore. Being awake is already a tiring process, and taking in information is as well, which is why we need to let our brains rest.

Question 34

what are the current theories of REM sleep and its functions?

Answer 34

Selective deprivation of REM sleep leads to something called
REM rebound, in which a person spends longer in the REM
state once they eventually are able to sleep than they
otherwise would have. The fact that the brain seems to want to
catch up on missed REM sleep suggests it has an important
function.

Some evidence suggests that people who are deprived of
REM sleep do not benefit from practising tasks as much as those
who get REM sleep.
This suggests that REM sleep may play a role in learning
and strengthening of memories, perhaps through the actions of
Acetylcholine.

Question 35

describe the two types of sleep disorders; dyssomnias and parasomnias, and give an example of each.

Answer 35

Dyssomnias: is a type of sleep disorder characterized by difficulties related to sleep quality, timing, or duration.
An example: Insomnia– problems initiating or maintaining sleep that last for a month or more.

Parasomnias: is a type of sleep disorder characterized by abnormal behaviors, experiences, or physiological events that occur during sleep or transitions between sleep and wakefulness.
An example: Sleepwalking–involves walking or performing other complex behaviors while in a state of partial arousal from deep sleep. Sleepwalkers typically have no memory of the events.

Question 36

Describe the concept of the orienting response (the novelty preference), and why it is a useful response to have.

Answer 36

The novelty preference is the tendency to pay attention to new or surprising events. it is a useful response because it reflects an person’s tendency to show greater interest or preference for new or unfamiliar stimuli over those that are familiar.

Question 37

Explain what is meant by habituation and sensitization. Explain why repeated exposure sometimes leads to sensitization rather than habituation.

Answer 37

what is meant by habituation:t he decline in attention to familiar events. the decline in our attention on something– the longer it goes on the less attention we pay to it

Sensitization: the longer something goes on, the more we pay attention to it, for example, a baby crying

repeated exposure sometimes leads to sensitization rather than habituation because it depends on how much the stimulus changes, along with the intensity and what it indicates.

*Intense stimuli, like loud noises or pain, can increase sensitivity; for example, hearing a loud bang may make you more jumpy over time. Context also matters; if a stimulus is associated with a negative experience, such as a scary sound, your reaction may strengthen due to that association. Additionally, changes in brain chemistry can heighten sensitivity, and learning connections with important or distressing stimuli can increase alertness.

Question 38

Describe the basic elements of classical conditioning (the Unconditioned Stimulus, the Unconditioned Response, the Conditioned Stimulus, and the Conditioned Response).

Answer 38

Unconditioned stimulus: the thing we didn’t have to learn about– so the thing we already know

unconditioned response: the response we didn’t learn
example combined: An unconditioned response (UR) is the natural, automatic reaction that occurs in response to an unconditioned stimulus (US) without any prior learning or conditioning. It is an innate response that happens instinctively. For example, when food (the unconditioned stimulus) is presented to a dog, it naturally salivates (the unconditioned response) without needing any training or conditioning. The unconditioned response is important in classical conditioning as it provides a baseline reaction that can be paired with a neutral stimulus to create a conditioned response over time.

Conditioned stimulus: something that initially does not cause a response but, after being paired with something that does (unconditioned stimulus)

Conditioned response: is the learned reaction or response that occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus
example:if a dog learns to salivate (the conditioned response) when it hears a bell (the conditioned stimulus) because the bell has been repeatedly paired with the presentation of food (the unconditioned stimulus), then the salivation in response to the bell is the conditioned response. Essentially, the conditioned response is what the organism learns to do in reaction to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 39

Explain the conditions (e.g., the timing) that must be true for the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to become associated with each other

Answer 39

For a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) to be successfully linked, they need to occur close together in time, with the CS coming before the US. Repeating this pairing helps strengthen the connection. The US should be strong enough to trigger a response, and the CS must reliably signal the US to reinforce learning. Additionally, some stimuli are more naturally suited to pair together due to biological factors.

Question 40

Describe what is meant by stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.

Answer 40

Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
EXAMPLE:if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, it may also salivate in response to similar sounds, such as a chime or a whistle. This happens because the organism has learned to associate the CS with the unconditioned stimulus (US), and it generalizes that response to other similar stimuli.
Stimulus discrimination, on the other hand, is the process by which an organism learns to differentiate between similar stimuli and responds only to the specific CS.
EXAMPLE: if the dog learns that only the sound of a specific bell (the CS) is followed by food (the US), it will stop salivating in response to other similar sounds. This ability allows the organism to make more precise responses based on learned associations, enhancing survival by reducing unnecessary reactions to non-relevant stimuli.

Question 41

Explain the extinction of a conditioned response, as well as spontaneous recovery.

Answer 41

Extinction of a conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading to a gradual decrease in the conditioned response (CR). For example, if a dog that has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell no longer receives food after the bell rings, the dog will eventually stop salivating in response to the bell.

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, even though the CS has not been paired with the US during that time. For instance, if the dog has not heard the bell for a while and then hears it again, it may suddenly start salivating again, despite the fact that it had previously stopped responding to the bell. This shows that the conditioned response can return under certain conditions, even after extinction has occurred.

Question 42

Define instrumental conditioning and explain how instrumental conditioning is different from classical conditioning.

Answer 42

Classical conditioning consists of learning that one event signals a particular outcome. Your behavior does not produce the outcome, and nor has your behavior changed.

Instrumental conditioning consists of learning that if you produce a certain behavior, you will receive a certain outcome. The outcome depends on your behavior and so you
changed it.

In CC, you learn an association between an event and an outcome. And what changes in you is usually some kind of involuntary response (such as a physiological or emotional response).

In IC, you learn an association between your own behavior and an outcome. And what changes is your voluntary behavior.

IC is about learning whether your behavior will be rewarded or punished.

Question 43

Explain B.F. Skinner’s “radical behaviourism” and why it was too radical.

Answer 43

Aimed to make Psychology into the science of behaviorism. To produce explanations of people’s behavior based entirely on the principles of classical and instrumental conditioning.
For instance, in explaining people’s phobias, Skinner argued that you didn’t need to pay attention to what they thought about the phobic object (the thing they are scared of), just to their history of learning, and reinforcement and punishment.
For instance, radical behaviorists thought you learned to be a
particular type of person because of your history of reward and punishments for previous behavior.
For instance, if someone is consistently teased by others, he or she may learn to avoid people (i.e. to become introverted).
On the other hand, if someone is consistently the center of attention, he or she may seek out others (i.e. become extraverted).
Remember the behaviorists were largely empiricists, believing that we learned almost all of our ways of thinking,behaving, and being, through experience (i.e., through classical and instrumental conditioning.)
Now Skinner’s radical behaviorism was undoubtedly too radical.
We know that not all our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are likely to be purely the result of our history of learning or conditioning.
Instead, there do seem to be many in-built genetics predispositions that play a role in our phobias, our
personalities, and so on.

Question 44

Describe the concept of reinforcement, both positive and negative.

Answer 44

Positive reinforcement – something that starts following behavior, that increases the likelihood of that behavior in Future. - something you like

Negative reinforcement – something that stops following behavior, that increases the likelihood of that behavior in Future. - something you don’t like.

examples:
Positive reinforcement involves adding something pleasant or rewarding after a desired behavior occurs. For example, if a child gets praise or a treat for doing their homework, the praise or treat encourages them to continue doing their homework in the future.

Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant or uncomfortable when a desired behavior occurs. For example, if a student studies hard to avoid the stress of failing a test, the removal of that stress (the unpleasant feeling) reinforces the studying behavior.

Question 45

Describe the different schedules of reinforcement and discuss how different schedules of reinforcement affect behaviour.

Answer 45

A continuous reinforcement schedule is what we call it when you are rewarded every time you do a particular behavior. Partial reinforcement schedules reward you only some of the time you do the behavior.

Ratio schedules reward you after a certain number of actions.
Interval schedules reward you after a certain period of time.
Fixed schedules reward you in a fixed and predictable pattern.
Variable schedules change the pattern and are less

Question 46

Explain how complex behaviours can be acquired through shaping.

Answer 46

With shaping, rewards are given for getting closer to the ‘target’ (desired / trained) action.
-At first, you give a reward for behaviour that looks a little bit like what you want to train. Then, once that behaviour is being reliably produced, you stop rewarding that and only give the reward for behaviour that looks even more like what you are aiming forStart with Simple Steps: Begin by reinforcing simple behaviours that are similar to the target behaviour.

simple steps: For example, if you want to teach a dog to roll over, you might first reward it for lying down.

Gradual Progression: Once the dog reliably lies down, you would only reward it when it starts to roll onto its side, then when it rolls further over, and so on.

Consistent Reinforcement: Throughout the process, you consistently reinforce each small step until the dog learns the entire behavior of rolling over.

Question 47

Define punishment, both positive and negative.

Answer 47

-With reinforcement, you can be rewarded with the presence of
a pleasant thing, or the removal of an unpleasant thing.
 With punishment, you can be punished with the presence of a
unpleasant thing, or the removal of a pleasant thing.
 Positive punishment: your behaviour leads to something
starting that results in lowering the likelihood that you will
behave that way again in the future.
 Negative punishment: your behaviour leads to something
stopping that results in lowering the likelihood that you will
behave that way again in the future.

Question 48

explain how classical and instrumental conditioning can combine (“two-factor” theory) to create and maintain our phobias.

Answer 48

The two-factor theory explains how classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning work together to create and maintain phobias. It begins with classical conditioning, where a person has a negative experience with a specific stimulus, such as being bitten by a dog, leading to a fear of dogs. This fear becomes a conditioned response associated with the presence of dogs. Then, through instrumental conditioning, the person learns to avoid dogs to escape the anxiety they feel, reinforcing the avoidance behavior. This cycle of fear and avoidance helps maintain the phobia over time, as the individual continues to evade the feared stimulus to reduce their distress.

Question 49

examples of ratio schedules, interval schedules, fixed schedules, and variable schedules

Answer 49

Example of real world
variable ratio reward schedule
-the slot machine because you could get the reward (full cash payout on any pull of the lever)

Real world example of fixed interval reward schedule
-Christmas presents, because it doesn’t matter how often you are good during the year, you only get the presents once a year, in December.

Real world example of variable interval reward
schedule
-going fishing, because you cast your line, then wait anywhere from a few seconds to hours waiting to catch a fish.

Question 50

classical conditioning: learning to predict events

Answer 50

Some stimuli predict that you are about to encounter other
Stimuli.
-sight/ smell of food
-taste of food
-sight of exam seating
-test
-sight of vodka bottle
-sickness

Question 51

what happens when we are denied sleep?

Answer 51

If we are denied sleep, our ability to perform complex tasks decreases, suggesting that brain function is impaired, compared to when we are fully rested.
-All animals sleep, and when they are completely sleep deprived this leads to a complete breakdown of the brain’s ability to regulate the needs of the body.

Question 52

rods and cones

Answer 52

Rods: 92m rod cells, edge of retina, more sensitive to light than cones, night vision

Cones: 4.6m cone cells, central (primarily in the fovea), less sensitive than rods need more light to work, color vision, fine detail

You have more rod cells than cone cells in each retina

The rods are around the edges of your retinas (peripheral vision) whereas cones are packed in the center (fovea; central vision).

Rods work well in low light; cones do not. But cones pick out small, fine details and create the sensation of color; rods do not.
So, at night and in your peripheral vision, it is hard to see small details and sense colors.

Question 53

bottom-up processing

Answer 53

is a way our brain understands things by starting with the basic details and then building up to a bigger picture. It involves taking in sensory information from our environment, like what we see, hear, or touch, and using that information to form our understanding or perception of something.

example: when you see a new object, your brain first processes its shapes, colors, and textures (the details), and then combines that information to recognize what the object is, like identifying a new type of fruit. Essentially, bottom-up processing is like assembling a puzzle: you start with individual pieces (the details) and gradually see how they fit together to create a complete image.

Question 54

top-down processing

Answer 54

is a way our brain makes sense of information by using what we already know and our previous experiences to interpret what we see or hear. Instead of starting with the small details, top-down processing starts with the big picture or the overall concept and then fills in the details based on that context.

example:if you see a blurry image of a familiar object, like a dog, your brain uses your knowledge of what a dog looks like to fill in the gaps and help you recognize it, even if the details aren’t clear. It’s like having a mental shortcut where your brain takes cues from your experiences and expectations to quickly understand what you’re encountering. Essentially, top-down processing is how our expectations and knowledge shape our perception of the world around us.

Question 55

bottom-up processing in hearing

Answer 55

is how our brain understands sounds by starting with the basic elements of what we hear and then building up to understand the bigger picture. It begins with the sounds that reach our ears, such as different pitches, volumes, and rhythms.

example:when you hear a song, your brain first processes the individual notes and beats. It picks up on the details like the instruments playing and the melody. Then, your brain combines all those details to recognize the song and understand its overall meaning or emotion. Essentially, bottom-up processing in hearing is like putting together a musical puzzle, where you start with each note and gradually see how they come together to create a complete piece of music.

Question 56

top-down processing in hearing

Answer 56

is when our brain uses prior knowledge and expectations to understand sounds and music. Instead of just focusing on the basic sounds we hear, top-down processing relies on what we already know to make sense of those sounds.

example: being somewhere crowded but picking up on your friend’s voice specifically.

Question 57

how frequency and amplitude are measured

Answer 57

Frequency = pitch (Hz)

Amplitude = loudness (dB)