Psych Exam 2 Flashcards
Thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgement, and memory
Cognition
Category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences
Concept
Best representation of a concept
Prototype
Built through experiences
Natural Concept
Defined by a very specific set of characteristics
Artificial Concept
A mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
Schema (Schemata)
Set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role
Role Schema
Set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script
Event Schema
A plan of action used to find a solution
Problem-solving strategy
Continue trying different solutions unit problem is solved
Trial and error
Step-by-step problem-solving formula
Algorithm
General problem-solving framework
heuristic
What are the three types of problem-solving?
Trial and error, algorithm, heuristic
What are the two types of schema?
Role and Event
Continually using an old solution to a problem regardless of it helping
Mental set
Inability to see an object used for anything besides its intended purpose
Functional fixedness
Tendency to focus on a particular piece of information when making decisions
Anchoring bias
Focus on information that confirms existing belief
Confirmation bias
Belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t (hindsight 2020)
Hindsight bias
Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Representative bias
When a decision is based on either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty
Availability bias
Information that is shared by people in a conversation
Common ground
Constructing utterances to suit the audience’s knowledge
Audience design
A mental representation of an event, object, or situation
Situation model
A stimulus is presented to a person reminds them of other associated things
Priming
What do we talk about?
Mainly ourselves and others
The brain has evolved so humans can be in larger groups
Social brain Hypothesis
-characterizes positive things about ingroup using the abstract experiences
- and characterize negative things about outgroup using abstract expressions
Linguistic Ingroup Bias
Two components; lexicon and grammar
Language
Minimal units of speech
Phoneme
Unit of meaning
Morphemes
Study of meaning
Semantics
a group of rules that are used to describe how the phrases and the words should be used in a language so that they can be grammatically correct
Syntax
a philosophical stance holding that the truth value of a proposition or a theory is to be identified in its sign
pragmatics
language is learned through reinforcement
B.F. Skinner
ability to learn language is in our biology
- language acquisition appears to occur without formal teaching
- language development seems similar around the world
- critical period of language acquisition
Noam Chomsky
used to describe red, browns, orange, and some yellows
serandu
a variety of greens, reds, beige and yellows, and is also the term for a Caucasian person
Dambu
describe the most dark colors; black, dark red, dark purple, dark blue, etc.
Zuzu
some yellows and whites
Vapa
collection of greens and blues
Buru
the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills
intelligence
focus was on commonalities
- less concerned with unique abilities
Spearman’s model
innate abilities
Spearman’s g
Learned abilities
Spearman’s s
acquired knowledge and ability to retrieve it
crystallized intelligence
ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
fluid intelligence
academic problem-solving and computation
analytical intelligence
streets smarts and common sense
practical intelligence
imaginative and innovative problem-solving
creative intelligence
- each person possesses at least 8 intelligences
- each person has strengths and weaknesses
Gardener’s 8 Intelligences Theory
perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages
linguistics
capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use logic and reason
mathermatical
understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments, or performs as a vocalist
musical
high ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks
bodily kinesthetic
ability to perceive the relation between two objects and how they move in space
spatial(visuospatial)
ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others
interpersonal
ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals
intrapersonal
high capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species in it
naturalist
interpersonal and intrapersonal
- promotes high social skills
- some believe this is a better predictor of success
emotional intelligence
average age or typical test score for a specific chronological age
mental age
adult intelligence test
WAIS-IV
child intelligence test
WISC-V
child intelligence test
WISC-V
each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last
flynn effect
administering a test to a large group so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups
norming
method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent
standardization
- researchers found twins raised apart has similar IQ
- more similar than fraternal twins or siblings raised together
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart
each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his other genetic makeup
range of reaction
the inability to correctly process letters, may mix up letter within words or sentences
dyslexiA
the inability to correctly process letters, may mix up letter within words or sentences
dyslexia
have learning disability that results in struggle to write legibly. extreme difficulty writing with pen and paper
dysgraphia
difficulty with making math calculation
dyscalculia
input of information into the memory system
encoding
creation of permanent record of information
storage
act of getting information out of our memory and into our awareness
retrieval
encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and meaning of words
automatic processing
encoding of information that takes effort and attention
effortful processing
-easier to quickly name color if printed in same color ink
-example of automatic processing
-experience has taught us to attach more significance to the meaning of words than the colors they are written in
stroop effect
input of words and their meaning
emantic encoding
input of images
visual encoding
input of sounds, words, and music
acoustic encoding
taking info from the form it is delivered to us and converting it in a way that helps us make sense of it
errors can occur
recoding
creation of a permanent record of information
storage
shifting of information from one memory store to another
control processing
temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory info
holds about seven bits of information before forgotten or stored
short-term memory
continues storage of information
long-term memory
memories we consciously try to remember and recall
explicit memory (declarative)
memories that are not part of our consciousness
implicit memory(non-declarative)
act of getting information out of our memory and back into conscious awareness
retrieval
Types of Retrieval
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
accessing info without cues
recall
identifying info previously learned by encouraging it again
recognition
learning info that was previously learned
relearning
retrieval will be better depending on how much overlap there is between cue and encoding
encoding specificity principle
memory for learning material is easier to recall if you are in the same place you learned it
context-dependent learning
memory for learned material is better if in same internal state
state-dependent learning
memory is easier if your mood at retrieval matches mood at encoding
mood-dependent learning
exceptionally clever recollection of an important event
flashbulb memory
loos of long term memory that occurs as result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
amnesia
inability to make new memories
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma
retrograde amnesia
Five Impediments of Remembering
Encoding failure - don’t learn it to begin with
Decay - memory fades
Inadequate retrieval cues - no reminders
Interference - other memories get in the way
Trying not to remember - deliberately try not to remember
old information hinders recall of new information
proactive interference
new information hinders recall of old information
retroactive information
it’s easier to remember things that come toward the beginning of a list
primary effect
it’s easier to remember things that have recently occurred
recency effect
formulation of new memories
construction
process of bringing up old memories
reconstruction
What happens to memories that are reconstructed?
They are reconsolidated (changed) before they are put back.
Accessibility of memory decreases over time
transcience
forgetting caused by lapses in attention
absentmindedness
accessibility of information is temporarily blocked
blocking
source of memory is confused
misattribution
false memories
suggestibility
memories distorted by current belief system
bias
inability to forget undesirable memories
persistence
effects of misinformation from external sources leading to creation of false memories
suggestibility
given incorrect information, witnesses may misremember the original event
misinformation effect
practicing over and over again
rehearsal
taking larger pieces of information and breaking them down into smaller groups
chunking
making connections to other experiences, objects, etc
elaborative rehearsal
using pseudonyms to assists memory
mnemonic devices
innate behaviors
reflexes
instincts
any event or situation that evokes a response
stimulus
behavior that occurs in response to the stimuli
response
relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience
learning
form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
associative learning
organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together
classical conditioning
organisms learn to associate events - a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
operant conditioning
the process of watching others and then imitating what they do
observational learning
elicits a reflexive response
unconditional stimulus (UCS)
natural, unlearned reaction to UCS
unconditioned response (UCR)
presented immediately before UCS
neutral stimulus
neutral stimulus becomes CS after being associated with UCS
conditioned stimulus (CS)
learned response to previously neutral stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
the process by which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a stimulus in the environment, and as a result, the environmental stimulus eventually elicits the same response as the natural stimulus
classical conditioning
a situation in which a stimulus that was previously neutral(e.g., a light) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone that has been conditioning with food to produce salivating) to produce the same conditioned response as the conditioned stimulus
high-order conditioning
picking up learned behavior
acquisition
disappearance of learned behavior
extinction
picking back up the learned behavior that was once lost
spontaneous recovery
the ability to distinguish between different stimuli
stimulus discrimination
a similar stimuli will set off the learned behavior because it is similar to the neutral stimuli
stimulus generalization
growing accustomed to a stimulus
habituation
form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an over response
latent learning
need to be focused on what the model is doing
attention
need to retain or remember what to do
retention
need to perform behavior you observed and committed to memory
reproduction
need to want to actually copy the behavior
motivation
when model was punished for behavior, the children were less likely to do the behavior modeled
Bandura’s Bobo Doll
organisms learn to associate behaviors with their consequences
operant conditioning
reward successive approximations to target behavior
shaping
innate reinforcing qualities
primary reinforcers
no inherent value by itself but it is inked to something else
secondary reinforcers
- repeated reinforcement of a behavior every time it happens
- better at learning a
continuous reinforcement
-reinforcement response only part of the time
-behavior is kept for longer
partial reinforcement
Rosa Parks is often discussed as the best example of civil disobedience. This makes her an example of what?
Prototype
When you say, “I knew it all along,” about an unpredictable event, you are performing which bias?
Hindsight bias
I performed an activity that required me to use a coffee mug as a measurement tool. By doing so, I was able to break this, which is when you are not able to see an object for something other than its intended use.
Functional fixedness
A category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experience
Concept
I have developed a fear of flying because of many stories I see on the news about planes crashes; however, thousands of safe flights happen daily. What is this an example of?
Availability Bias
If we were talking about going to a movie theater, you probably have developed a mental representation of going to the movies. What is this called?
Situational Model
The shared knowledge between two people in a conversation is known as what?
Common ground
Followers of this hypothesis believe we developed complex thoughts as a result of our need to be in larger groups for survival.
Social brain hypothesis
Words are created by combining these, which are basic units of speech sounds, like “th” “r” and “ee” in the word “three”
Phonemes
What are the two main parts of long term memory? What are the differences between the two?
Explicit - things that you are consciously aware of
Implicit - things you’re not consciously aware of (breathing, digestion, etc)
An example of this type of processing is when you are trying to study for an exam and have to put in a lot of energy and attention to encode it.
Effortful processing
