Psych Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Monism
A
The theory that mind and body are one indistinguishable entity
2
Q
Dualism
A
The theory that mind and body are two independent entities
3
Q
Phrenology
A
A theory proposed by Franz Gall that states cranium size and shape can be used as an indicator of mental abilities
4
Q
Psychodynamic theory
A
A theory proposed by Sigmund Freud that each person has an ID (an unconsious resovior of instinct and libido), an ego (personality and decision making) and a superego (moral values)
5
Q
Cognative psychology
A
The study of how mental processes influence behaviour and the study of the brain as an information processor
6
Q
Correlational studies
A
Studies that examine the relationships between variables (they cannot confirm relationshipsonly provide evidence)
7
Q
Observational methods of research
A
Studies based in observing participants
8
Q
Pitfalls of observational research
A
Observer bias
Participant self conciousness
9
Q
Case studies
A
The study of one or a few individuals lives in regard to an experimental factor
10
Q
Pitfall of case studies
A
They are not representive of phenomona
11
Q
Pitfalls of survey studies
A
Sampling errors and response bias
12
Q
Define learning
A
A process that results in a relatively consistant change in behaviour, or behavioural potential, based in experience
13
Q
Factors of learning (CONE)
A
Consistant: learning is relatively consistant over different circumstances
Observable: the results of learning are observable through improvement in performane or accquired general attitudes
Not permanent: Learning is not necessarily permanent and learned patterns/abilities can be lost or broken
Experience-based: Learning is exclusively based on experience and memory
14
Q
Habituation
A
A decline in response to repeated presentations of a stimulus
15
Q
Sensitization
A
Increased responsiveness with repeated presentation of strong or important stimuli
16
Q
Non-learning causes of behavioural or ability change
A
Maturation
Illness
Brain damage
17
Q
Opponent process theory definition
A
A theory proposed by Ewald Hering that states initial responses to stimuli are followed by an opposite response over time in order to maintain a constant state of being
18
Q
Opponent process theory in practice
A
An A process responds to a stimulus which is then followed by a B process which counteracts the A process. Due to the B process being delayed, the B process continues past the end of the A process causing an inverse response to the initial response caused by the stimuli. Repeated exposure to the stimuli grows the B process dampening the bodies response to said stimuli.
19
Q
Classical conditioning
A
A theory proposed by Ivan Pavlov that states that the pairing, in a fixed temporal relationship, of a neutral stimulus with a stimulus capabale of regularly and reliably eliciting a response leads to a conditioned response to the neutral stimulus
20
Q
Factors of classical conditioning
A
Unconditioned response: drooling when food is seen
Unconditioned stimulus: Food
Conditioned response: drooling when bell is heard
Conditioned stimulus: Bell
21
Q
Extinction of behaviour
A
An accquired behaviour fades over time or is supressed
22
Q
Reconditoining of behaviour
A
The re-association of a conditioned stimulus to create a new conditioned resonse
23
Q
Spontanious recovery
A
A process in which a learned and extinguished behaviour suddenly reappears
24
Q
Contingency
A
A temporal association between stimuli
25
Little Albert B and Watson
A 9 month old raised in a hospital environment was conditioned to associate white rats with a loud noise that made him cry. This caused a phobia of white rats to develop
26
Response specificity
The strength of a conditioned response is dependent on the similarity of a stimulus to the original stimulus. Further training can lead to discrimination and mean that a stimulus must be closer to the original stimulus to create a response.
27
Equipotent stimuli premise
The theory that all stimuli are equally conditionable
28
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
Cue to consequence: A study in which rats were exposed to a light and buzzer and given flavoured water. Half of the rats were zapped and half were made to feel nauseous. Those zapped began to aviod the light and buzzer and those made nauseous began to avoid the flavoured water.
29
Bolles (1970) and Selingman
Species-specific defense mechanisms: the theory that some behaviours in response to a threat are instinctive to a species and not based on prior experience
30
Sigel (1975)
B-Process conditioning: The theory that B processes can be conditioned to occur without the A process or stimulant e.g. dependent on the environment
31
Operant conditioning
A form of learning that utilises consequenses to certain behaviours to cause behavioural change
32
Edward Thorndike
Edward placed cats in puzzle boxes and encouraged them to escape with the reward of fish. The cats would expiriment with different ways to open the cage and upon pressing a lever the cage would open. Over successive trials cats were quicker to press the lever leading to Thorndike creating the law of effect
33
Law of effect
If a response to a particular behaviour is followed by a pleasant response it will be strengthened and if it is followed by a negative response it will be reduced
34
Burrhus F. Skinner
Created the Skinner box, a chamber with buttons that lead to positive or negative responses and futher invesigated work on behaviour and consequense
35
Reinforcement definition
A response that increases the potential of a certain behaviour
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Punishment definition
A class of consequence that weakens the potential of a specific behaviour
37
Explain the 4 forms of consequence
Positive reinforcement: Behaviour leads addition of positive stimuli
Negative reinforcement: Behaviour leads to removal of negative stimuli
Punishment: Behaviour leads to addition of a negative stimuli
Response cost: Behaviour leads to removal of a positive stimuli
38
Define shaping
Successive approximations of the targets behaviour
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Primary and secondary reinforcerers
Primary: Necessary for survival (e.g. food and water)
Secondary: Trivial rewards (e.g. money and praise)
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Factors in speed of response development and loss
Timing, size of reinforcement and reinforcement schedule
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Continuous reinforcement schedule
A process by which a reinforcer is presented after every performance of a desired behaviour.
This leads to quick learning but also quick extinction of the behaviour.
42
Partial reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio: The number of responses between reinforcers is unchanging
Variable ratio: The number of responses between reinforcers is random
Fixed interval: The amount of time between reinforcers is unchanging
Variable interval: The amount of time between reinforcers is random
43
Language Acquisition Skinner Theory
Language is acquired through learning in response to selective reinforcement of trial and error
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Lanuage Acquisition Chomsky theory
We are bon with a language acquisition device that enables us to understand deep structures of language
45
Behaviour genetics
How heredity and environmental factios influence psychological characteristics
46
Concordance rate
The probablity that a pair of individuals will have a certain characteristic given one has said characteristic
47
Heritability statistic
The extent to which the difference in a phenotype can be atrributed to differing genes
48
Behaviourism
We begin as a blank slate and learn through laws of learning that apply to all organisms
49
Ethology
Evolutionary behavioural differences between species
50
Define adaptive significance
The idea that behvaiour influences the chances of survival and reproduction
51
Define fixed-action pattern
An instinctive behaviour that is automatically triggered by a particular stimulus
52
Determinants of IQ
Genetic: IQ range has a heritability factor of 70-80%
Environmental: Where you fall in a given inherited IQ range is determined by family environment, educatational experiences, environmental enrichment and environmental deprivation
53
OCEAN model of personality and inheritability
Openess to experience: 57%
Conscienctiousness: 49%
Extroversion/Introversion: 54%
Agreeableness: 42%
Neurotocism: 48%
54
Psycopathy genetics
69% of psycopathy is rooted in genetic factors
55
Wang et al. (2018)
Determined that women found men with higher salaries far more attractive than men found women with higher salaries and this was theorised to be an evolutionary response (quality of offspring over quantity)
56
Searr & McCartney (1983)
Genotype based characteristics influence the parent produced environment, responses evoked from others and self-selection of compatible environments. In this way genotype influences environment.
57
Reaction range
The range of possibilites that an individuals genetic code allows
58
Between and witin group difference causes
Between group differences: Caused by environmental differences
Within group differences: Caused by genetic differences
59
Weaver et al (2004)
Stress reactions in rats are controlled by specific genes but the quality of maternal care determine the activation of those genes and therefore affect the quality of care they provide to their offspring
60
Turkheimer et al. (2003)
When 7 year old monozygotic and dizygotic twins were studies, differences in IQs in impoverished families were caused by environment and differences in IQ in privileged families were caused by genetics
61
Trivers (1972)
Parental investment theory: Females have a higher reproductive cost and are more discriminant when choosing mates, preferring males that have the ability to provide. This only applies when resources are monopolised and defended by males and variation in research acquisition is high.
62
Buss (1989)
A questionnairre was given to over 10,000 people where 13 qualities were ranked in men and women.
It was found that women prefered older men (28) and men prefered younger women (25). This provided evidence for the theory that men care more about reproductive capacity and women care more about the ability to provide.
63
Eagly & Wood (1999)
As gender inequality decreases men and women care less about age and earning.
64
Cognative psychology
An area of psych involved in thinking, memory, planning, reasoning, action and perception
65
Inattentional blindness
Failure to percieve something being observed as the brain is preoccupied
66
Change blindness
Failure to notice changes in your environment between viewings
67
Visual popout
The idea that some basic functions dont need attention to be seen (e.g. changes in shape and colour)
68
Conjunction search
Targets combining basic features require selective attention (e.g. find the red triangle vs find the red object)
69
Feature intergration theory
Certain basic features are processed automatically and in parallel. This is due to selective attention binding simple features together
70
Top-down attention
Voluntary, purposeful and strategic directing of attention
71
Bottom-up attention
Reflexive form of attention that does not require voluntary work
72
How does emotion impact attention
Emotional information is prioritized by your attention
73
Colin MacLeod
Dot-probe task: A task in which people are presented with two images, either both neutral or one neutral and one emotional and then asked to identify the direction a dot was. We looked away from the negative stimulus causing the response to be slower when presented with an emotional stimuli
74
Define memory
The process that allows us to record, store and later retrieve experiences and infoormation
75
Atkinson & Shiffin (1968)
Three stage model of memory: Memory can be divided into three stages, sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory
76
Types of sensory memory
Ionic: visual sensory memory (stored for 1/4 seconds)
Echoic: auditory sensory memory (stored for 2-4 seconds)
77
Define working memory
A limited capacity system that temporarily stores and processes information
78
Define sensory memory
A brief, high capacity, representative form of visual or auditory memory
79
How do you get information into working or long term memory
Encoding, attention and rehersal
80
Limits of working memory
Working memory can only store a limited amount (4-7 items) of information and lasts 20-30 seconds if its not rehearsed
81
Define long term memory
A form of memory with no know capacity created via the consolidation of the working memory
82
Recency effect
A cognative bias in which items or ideas that came last are remembered 30-60% more clearly than those that came first
83
Procedural memory
Involves skills, actions and classically conditioned responses
84
Declarative memory
Memory that involves factual knowledge and includes episodic memory and semantic memory
85
Episodic memory
Memory of events experienced
86
Semantic memory
Memory of general factual knowledge
87
Explicit memory
Memory that requires concious or intentional memory retrieval
88
Implicit memory
Memory that influences our behaviour without concious attention
89
Elaboration processing
The process of changing or adding to material to make it easier to remember
90
Types of elaboration processing
Structural (shallow): Apperance and structure of a word
Phonemic (mid): Rhyming and sound
Semantic (deep): Connection to other items
91
Context-dependent processing
Recalling information learnt in the same context it was learnt in is more effective
92
Mood-congruent recall
Its easier to remember events that match your internal state or mood
93
Flashbulb memory
A highly accurate and vivid recollection of where you were and what you were doing when something emotional occured
94
How are memories formed?
Biochemical changes cause synaptic change between neurons
95
Long term potentiation
An enduring increase in synaptic strength
96
Cortex role in memory
Long term memory storage
97
Pre frontal cortex role in memory
Working memory storage
98
Amygdala role in memory
Emotional memory formation
99
Hippocampus role in memory
Declerative memory and memory consolidation
100
Thalamus role in memory
Encoding and retrieval of memory
101
Cerebellum role in memory
Storage and formation of procedural memory
102
Types of amnesia
Retrograde: Memory loss before amnesia event
Anterograde: Memory loss after amnesia event
Infantile: Loss of early experiences
103
Define dementia
Impaired memory and cognitition due to brain degeneration
104
Hyperthymestic syndrome
An increased ability to recall episodic memory but a normal ability to recall digits and information given
105
Misinformation effect
The distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information
106
'Lost in the Mall' technique
An expiriment done where a group of people were told that something in their childhood occured that did not (e.g. being lost in the mall). Due to the misinformation effect over 25% of people 'recalled' the event and even added details of their oen to it
107
Source monitoring
Internal source monitoring: distinguishing between internally devived sources (e.g. thought vs spoken ideas)
External source monitoring: distinguishing between externally derived sources (e.g. which person said that)
108
Challenger Disaster Experiment
People were asked the day after the Challenger disaster where they were when it occured and then were asked again 3 years later and only 25% of people had a different answer.
109
Schema
A mental framework created based on experience and expertise to group concepts and help percieve, organise, process and use information
110
Heuristics
A rule of thumb used to make fast judgements based on partial data. It is intuitive and efficient but often subject to bias and failure
111
Availability Heuristic
The process where decisions are made based on past experiences and instances that come to mind
112
Recognition Heuristic
The assumption that recognised objects have higher value than non-recognised ones
113
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
Rely on th first piece of information to form judgements and evolve your beliefs as more information is presented to you
114
Photoreceptors
Cells in your eyes that transform light wave energy into a neural signal
115
Rods vs Cones
Cones: concentrated in the fovea, detects and interperates bright light, fine detail and colour
Rods: mainly in the periphery of the eye, detects and inteperates dim light and movement
116
Visual acuity
The ability to see fine detail
117
Colour contrast
The way in which colour perception is influenced by the contrasting colours surrounding it
118
Colour constancy
The tendency of a surface to appear the same colour under a large range of illuminants
119
Blind spot
A portion of the eye where the optic nerve leaves the eye that has no rods or cones
120
Colour gradients in the eyes
Red-Green
Blue-Yellow
Black-White
121
Fixation point
The exact point you are looking at
122
Vision to processing (right v left)
Any visual information on the right of an eyes fixation point is processed in the left side of the brain and vice versa. This information crosses at the optic chiasm.
123
Stage 1 of visual processing
The first stage of corticol processing is involved in the coding of lines and edge in the visual scene. This is important in determining the difference between figures of intrest and the background
124
Stage two of visual processing
The usage of the Gestalt principles to construct a unified holistic perception
125
Gestalt principles
Similarity - similar thingsare grouped
Proximity - closer things are grouped together
Closure - brain inteprets missing parts of common objects
Continuity - smooth continuations intersecting rather than odd shapes
126
Visual processing stage 3
Use of prior knowledge to disambiguate perception
127
Monocular depth cues
Linear perspective, interposition (infront or behind), height in horisontal plane, clarity, size, motion parallax, blue-tone
128
Motion parallax
Images closer to an observer move faster across a given field
129
Binocular disparity
Objects beside the fovea appear to move when an eye is closed a each eye has a slightly different FOV
130
Vieth Muller circle
A partial circle starting at one fovea, ending at the other and projecting forwards. Any object on the circle does not experience binocular disparity but any object in or around it does.
131
How are sounds processed
Pressure waves in the air are moved through the ear and hit the eardrum, leading to vibration through the ossicles to the cochlea where those vibrations move the fluid in the cochlea
132
Theories of sensing sound frequency
Frequency theory: Frequency detection depends on fluid movement causing vibrations of hair in the inner ear up to 1000Hz
Place theory: Frequency detection is sensed based on where in the cochlea the fluid movement occurs (lower deeper, higher shallower)
133
How do we localise sound
Sound that comes from the left is lounder in the left ear and arrives in the left ear first
134
Proprioception
Fluid moves through semicircular canals and hair movement in these canals detects movement in all direction
135
Homunculus
A visua representation of the uneven distribution of nerve endings in the body
136
Pain
A subjective experience with two components, the sensation of a painful stimuli and an emotional response to it
137
Miss C
A woman born with an insensitivity to pain which lead to her not being able to sneeze, cough, gag or blink reflexively. She died at 29 due to infection she could not feel
138
Consiousness
The moment-to-moment awareness of oneself in their environment. It is subjective, private, dynamic and self-reflective.
139
Freudian viewpoint of consiousness
Concious mind: thoughts and perceptions we are aware of
Preconcious mind: mental events easily recalled
Unconcious mind: events that cannot ordinarily be brought into concious awareness
140
Controlled processing
Conscious use of attention and effort
141
Automatic processing
Processing that occurs without concious awareness or effort
142
Measurements of conciousness
Self-reporting, behavioural measures or physiological measures (EEG in sleep, heartrate)
143
Global workspace theories
All parts of the brain interact to form concious awareness
144
Visual agnosia
The inability to visually recognise objects while interacting with them
145
Prosopagnosia
The ability to recognise objects but not faces as they cannot determine subtle changes
146
Blindsight
Reported blindness in a part of a visual field, which when tested still responds to stimuli
147
Hemispatial neglect
occurs when one hemisphere is damaged causing unconciousness of objects in the damaged side
148
States of alive percieved permanent unconciousness
Coma, vegetative state, minimally concious and locked-in syndrome
149
Hypnosis
A procecure in which one person is guided by another persons suggestions
150
Alcohol myopia
Short sighted thinking and an inability to pay attention caused by alchohol
151
Dissasociation theory of hypnosis
Hypnosis is an altered state involving a division of consiousness
152
Social cognition theory of hypnosis
Hypnotic experience results fom the expectations of people who are motivated to be hypnotized
153
What brain waves are produced when awake?
Alpha and Beta brain waves
154
Stages of sleep
1: Theta waves and light sleep
2: Deeper sleep and sleep spindles formed
3: Slow large delta waves and deep sleep
4: Deepest sleep and delta waves
REM
155
REM sleep
A state of high arosal and dreaming
156
Freud theory of dreaming
We dream for the gratification of unconcious desires
157
Cognative theory of dreaming
We dream to problem solve to aid in real world problems
158
Action-synthesis theory of dreams
Dreams are random neural firing that the cerebral cortex provides context for to provide a plausible story
159
Motivation
A process that influences the direction, vigor and persistance of a goal-directed behaviour
160
Evolutionary perspective of motivation
Motivation is instinctual, inherited, automatic and common to a species and has adaptive significance
161
Child-caring instinctual response
Babies trigger nurturing feelings and behaviours which allows for babies to be cared for which is an evolutionary advantage
162
Biological perspective of motivation
The theory that motivation stems from the need to maintain internal physiological equilibrium
163
BAS and BIS system
BAS: activated by potential reward
BIS: activated by potential punishment
164
Psychodynamic perspective
The theory proposed by Freud that motivation is a mixture of concious and unconcious constructs
165
Self-determination theory
The theory that competance, autonomy and relatedness are our motivations and psychological needs
166
Four features of emotional states
Cognative appraisal: meaning of stimuli
Physiological response: change in arousal
Instrumental behaviour: response to stimuli
Expressive behaviour: visible expressions
167
James-Lange somatic theory
Emotions are subjective experiences based on bodily reactions (smiling makes you happy)
168
Cannon-bard theory
Subjective experience and physiological arousal are independent responses to an emotionally arousing situation
169
Cognative-affective theory
The intensity of arousal tells us how strongly to feel and situational cues and appraial allow us to label how we feel
170
Circumplux of emotion
All emotions exist on a scale of pleasant to unplesant and activation to deactivation
171
Forgas (2017)
Negative mood can improve memory, sensitive interpersonal behaviours and communication
172
Assimilate
Imposing internal structures on the external world
173
Accomodate
Modify internal structures in accordance to external constraints
174
Broaden and build model
Positive feelings are a signal of saftey which trigger exploration, learning and creativity
175
Signals of happiness theory
Signs of happiness stimulate reward centres in the brains of others leading to sucess and love
176
Affective forecasting
Predicting the emotional affects of future life events
177
Impact bias
The tendency to exaggurate the strength and duration of future emotional reactions
178
Focalism
People focus on one life element to the expense of others
179
Memory bias
People base affective forecasts on memories of similar experience from the past
180
Emotion congruent retrieval
Remembering past events with the same emotional tone they are currently in
181
Peak-end rule
When remembering an event you recall an average of your peak and end emotions
182
Hedonic adaptation
Habituating to the imppact of repeated emotional experiences
