Psych Everything Flashcards
What is the paradox of progress?
Modern life improves but you have less time and more stress.
Examples of Paradox of Progress
Time, economics, choice, technology
Main shortcoming of self-help books
Psychobabble, not based on research, no specific directions, no consideration of situational constraints.
The science that studies behavior and the physiological and mental processes that underlie it.
Psychology
What makes psychology a science?
Empiricism and Theory
Two types of research of psychology
Experimental and descriptive
What is experimental research?
Demonstrate a cause and effect relationship
What is descriptive research?
Used to observe and describe behavior (correlation)
What is an operational definition?
How a researcher decides to measure variables- how you will measure IV’s and DV’s
Correlation coefficient (r)
Ranges form -1 to 1
According to levels of processing approach to memory, thinking about synonyms is one method of _____ processing that should ____ memory for that term.
Deep; increase
Examples of mnemonic devices for memory
Acrostics, Rhymes, link method, method of loci
A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
Personality trait
What did Freud’s theory of personality focus on?
Early childhood experiences and fantasies
First assumption of psychoanalytic theory
Personality is governed by unconscious forces that we cannot control
Second assumption of psychoanalytic theories
Childhood experiences play a significant role in determining adult personality.
Third assumption of psychoanalytic theories
Personality is shaped by the manner in which individuals cope with sexual urges
What is the id governed by?
The pleasure principle
What is the superego governed by?
The ego ideal
When is the id developed
Present at birth
When is the superego developed?
Childhood
What is the ego governed by?
The reality principle
When is the ego developed
Childhood
What develops first the ego or superego?
the ego
What is behavior the result of for Freud?
Ongoing internal conflict among the id, ego, superego
We use _____ when internal conflict arouse anxiety for Freud.
Defense mechanisms
What is the difference between internationalization and rationalization?
Internationalization: thinking away an emotion or reaction that you don’t enjoy feeling.
Rationalization: When you rationalize something, you try to explain it away.
What do behaviorists argue?
People are products of their environments and develop specific behaviors as a result of experience.
Who is associated with classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship
Classical conditioning
What is the extinction in classical conditioning?
Reduction of conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Re-emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred.
When similar stimuli elicit the same response as a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has occurred.
Stimulus generalization
An organism learns to emit a specific behavior in the presence of a stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the original stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
What did Little Albert demonstrate?
Phobias as products of classical conditioning
What is counter conditioning?
Systematic desensitization
What is operant conditioning?
Process whereby a behavior becomes associated with its consequences
Operant conditioning is also known as ____
Instrumental conditioning
In operant conditioning, when a behavior leads to positive outcomes, that behavior will increase- this is known as ______
positive reinforcement
(Operant) Reinforcement always _____ a response
strengthens
(Operant) Punishment always _____ a response
weakens
(Operant) your instructor yells at you because you arrive late to class
Positive punishment
(Operant) Your partner refuses to kiss you because you smoke
negative punishment
(Operant) You receive a thank you letter from a friend after sending her a birthday gift
Positive reinforcement
(Operant) You take tylenol to get rid of a headache
Negative reinforcement
(Operant) a stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding.
Primary Reinforcers
A neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer
Secondary Reinforcer
Effective punishment is most effective when combined with what?
Reinforcement
What is shaping? (Operant conditioning)
Selective reinforcement of behaviours that gradually approach a desired response
What is behaviour modification?
A technique that brings about therapeutic change in behaviour through the use of secondary reinforcers.
Use _____ analysis to study trats
Factor
Each individual has a unique set of personality traits called _____ _____
Personality dispositions
Big-Five model
Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Projective tests are used for what?
To uncover unconscious motives
What is a thematic apperception test?
Black and white pictures (projection test)
What is stress?
Any circumstance that threatens or is perceived to threaten your well-being and thereby tax your coping abilities.
__% of Canadians experience stress in their daily lives
76%
Biggest stressers for canadians
Jobs, finances, health and family life
Primary appraisal of stress: perceive situation as _____/_____ and ____/____
Relevant/irrelevant; threatening/harmless
What is self-imposed stress the result of?
Setting unrealistic goals
3 types of stress?
Acute, chronic and anticipatory
3 types of internal conflict
approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance
Two subs-types of pressure
Pressure to preform
Pressure to conform
Responses to stress stages
Stressful event-appraisal- reaction
Responses to stress can be ____, ____ and _____
Emotional, physiological, and behavioural
Emotional reactions equation
Feeling + Physiological changes
Positive emotional reactions to stress are related to _____
Resiliance
What is the inverted-U hypothesis?
Optimal arousal level
What is the optimal level of arousal for simple tasks?
High
What is the optimal level of arousal for complex tasks?
Low
What nervous system tells you “it’s go time”
Sympathetic
What nervous system tells you “take ‘er down a notch”
Parasympathetic
General adaption syndrome
Alarm— Resistance— Exhaustion
What are the glans that release hormones into your bloodstream?
Endocrine system
What does the corticosteroid pathway do?
Increase energy
What does the catecholamine pathway do?
Mobilize for actions
Who came up with General adpation syndrome?
Hans Seyle
Belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes
Perceived control
Belief in one’s ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes
Self-efficacy
What is psychosematic diseases
Not imaginary, but rather caused (at least in part) my mental factors
Enduring Psychological disturbances following a major event.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
A key predictor of developing PTSD
Intensity of one’s reaction at the time of the event.
Social support is an important _____ of stress.
Moderator
A disposition that is associated with strong stress resistance
Hardiness
3 qualities of hardiness
Commitment to a cause
Sense of control
Appetite for challenge
Efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress
Coping
Who came up with learned helplessness?
Martin Seligman
Passive behaviour produce by exposure to unavoidable aversive effects
Learned helplessness
Coping strategies of limited value
Self-blame (Negative self talk)
Self-indulgence
Learned Helplessness
Self-delusion
Attributing failures to personal shortcomings, focus only on negative feedback, results in pessimistic view.
Catastrophic thinking
Better to have _____ coping strategies than _____ strategies
flexible; consistent
Detecting and disputing rational self talk Rational thinking Using Positive reinterpretation Finding humor in the situation Turning to religon
Appraisal-focused strategies
Active problem solving Seeking social support Enhancing time management Improving self-control Becoming more assertive
Problem-focused strategies
Releasing pent-up emotions Distracting oneself Managing hostile feelings and forgiving others Exercising Meditating Using systematic relaxation procedures
Emotion-focused strategies
What coping strategy involves using systematic problem solving?
Problem-focused
What coping strategy involves seeking help?
Problem-Focused
What coping strategy involves time management?
Problem-focused
Ability to understand you own and other’s emotions and use this knowledge to guide your thinking and actions
Emotional intelligence
Four components of emotional intelligence
- Accurately perceiving emotions in yourself and others.
- Knowing how your emotions shape your thinking.
- An understanding of complex or contradictory emotions.
- Regulation of
emotions, especially negative ones.
Talking about traumatic events.
Emotional disclosure
Self-concepts also called
Self-schemas
Gauge for social comparisons
Festinger’s social comparison theory
Thinking Ugly is bad for you ted talk
Meaghan Ramsey
Thinking Ugly is bad for you ted talk
Meaghan Ramsey
Group of techniques designed to turn one’s consciousness away from the outer world toward one’s inner cues and awareness
Meditation
Two types of meditation
Mindfulness
Concentration
What is the key to meditation?
Relaxation
Low acceptance, high control parenting
Authoritarian
High acceptance, high control parenting
Authoritative
Low acceptance, low control parenting
Neglectful
High acceptance, low control parenting
Permissive
Measure of interpersonal popularity and sucess
Sociometer theory
The act of seeking a positive self-concept
Self-enhancement
Act of seeking an accurate self-concept
Self-assessment
BIRG
Basking in reflected glory
CORF
Cutting off reflected failure
Inferences people make that cause their behaviour
Self-attributions
One’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes
Self-efficacy
One’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviours that should lead to expected outcomes
Self-efficacy
Theory in which you have a limited amount of self-control
Ego depletion model of self-regulatiion
Who came up with the model of attribution?
Harold Kelley
Mental representations of objects or categories of objects
Schemas
Who preformed the line study?
Asch
Three types of selves
Actual, ideal and ought
Typically a child’s self-concept is ____
concrete
As we mature we place less emphasis on physical characteristics and more on _______ _____ (Self-concept)
Psychological states
Actual vs ideal self
Disappointment
Dejection
Sadness
Actual vs ought
Anxiety
Irritability
Guilt
How people think they ought to be and is made up of the qualities that people think they should posess
Ought self
How people would ideally like to be and is made up of the qualities that people would like to have
Ideal self
Who came up with social discrepancy theory?
E. Troy Higgins
Overall assessment of your worth as a person
Self-esteem
The tendency to regard oneself as grandiosely self-important
Narcissism
Narcissism can lead to high _____ when their ego is threatened
agression
Two kinds of cognitive processes
Automatic and Controlled
People conserve resources by following simple rules when making judgments.
Cognitive miser model
(cognitive miser model) Rules based on ____ _____ and ____ _____
Past experiences and world knowledge
A person’s desire for truthful information about themselves
Self-assessment motive
Drives people toward information that matches what they already believe about themselves.
Self-verification motive
Drive to understand ourselves to know how we can make ourselves better
Self-improvement motive
Tendency to seek positive and reject negative information about ourselves.
Self-enhancement
The attempt to get others to see them in a positive light
Self-enhancement
examples of self-enhancement strategies
Downward social comparison
self -serving bias
BIRG
self-handicapping
Tendency to attribute our sucesses to internal causes and our failures to external causes
Self-serving bias
The process of directing and controlling one’s behavior
Self-regulation
According to the _____ people have a limited amount of self-control
Ego depletion model of self-regulation
4 sources of self-efficacy
Mastery experiences
Vicarious experiences
Persuasion and encouragement
Interpretation of emotional arousal
Seemingly intentional actions that thwart a person’s self-interest
Self-defeating behaviours
3 categories of self-defeating behaviours
Deliberate self-destruction
Trade-offs
Counterproductive strategies
When verbal and nonverbal cues directly conflict, perceivers rely on _____ to interpret meaning
non-verbal cues
Example of information we use to form impressions of others.
Appearance
Verbal and nonverbal behaviour
Actions
Situations
An explanation for the cause of an event or behaviour
Attributions
Low consensus + high consistency + low distinctiveness
Internal Attribution
High consensus + High Consistency + High distinctiveness
External attribution
When people attribute the cause of others’ behaviour to personal dispositions, traits, abilities or feeling
Internal attributions
When people attribute the cause of others’ behaviour to situational demands or environmental contraints
External attribution
When are we most likely to make attributions?
Behavior is unexpected
Events are personally relevant
Other’s motives are suspicious
Snap judgements
Automatic
Systematic judgements
Controlled
Schemas aid in the ______ of events and the _______ of events.
Categorization; predictability
What do schemas encompass our knowledge of?
Ourselves
Other people
Special roles
Specific events
The tendency to search for or interpret new information in ways that confirm your expectations/beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information
Confirmation bias
_____ question seek to confirm a hypothesis
Biased
_____ questions seek to test the accuracy of a hypothesis
Diagnostic
Expectations about a person cause him or her to behave in ways that confirm the expectations
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Errors in person perception
Cognitive distortions
Cognitive distortions occur as a consequence of ______ ______
automatic processing
cognitive shortcuts in which we categorize people on the basis on nationality, race, gender, etc.
Social categorizations
