PSYCH CARDS Flashcards
1
Q
Kurt Lewin
A
- developed the theory of association, the forerunner of behaviorism
- association is grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space.
- organisms associate certain behaviors with certain rewards and certain cues with certain situations
- this idea is basically what Pavlov later proved experimentally
2
Q
Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity
A
- books written by Skinner
- discusses the control of human behavior rather than rat behavior
3
Q
Instrumental conditioning
A
another name for operant conditioning
4
Q
Who created balance theory
A
-Fritz Heider
5
Q
Who created congruity theory
A
Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum
6
Q
Who created cognitive dissonance theory
A
Leon Festinger
7
Q
Victor Vroom
A
- Applied Tolman’s Performance= Expectation X Value to individual behavior in large organizations
- individuals who are lowest on the totem pole do not expect to receive company incentives, so these carrots do little to motivate them
8
Q
John Atkinson
A
- suggested a theory of motivation in which people who set realistic goals with intermediate risk sets feel pride with accomplishment, and want to succeed more than they fear failure.
- But, because success is so important, these people are unlikely to set unrealistic goals or to persist when success is unlikely
9
Q
Yerkes Dodson effecr
A
- in terms of arousal, simple tasks have the optimal arousal toward the high end
- for complex tasks, the optimal level of arousal is toward the low end, so that the individual is not too anxious to perform well
- the optimal arousal for any type of task is never at the extremes
- on a graph, the optimal arousal looks like an inverted U-curve, with lowest performance at the extremes of arousal
10
Q
Undergeneralization
A
-the failure to generalize a stimulus
11
Q
Response learning
A
-the form of learning in which one links together chains of stimuli and responses. One learns what to do in response to particular triggers
12
Q
Perceptual or concept learning
A
- learning about something in general rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains. An individual learned about something rather than any particular response.
- ex: Tolman’s rats’ cognitive maps
13
Q
Automatic conditioning
A
-evoking responses of the automatic nervous system through training
14
Q
State dependent learning
A
-what a person learned in one state is best recalled in that state
15
Q
Social learning theory
A
-individuals learn through their culture. People learn what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors through interacting in society
16
Q
John Garcia
A
- performed classical conditioning experiments in which it was discovered that animals are programmed through evolution to make certain connections
- studied “conditioned nausea” with rats and found that invariably nausea was perceived to be connected with food or drink
- he was unable to condition a relationship between nausea and a neutral stimulus.
- this extremely strong connection that animals form between nausea and food has been used to explain why humans can become sick only one time from eating a particular food and are never able to eat that food again
- the connection is so automatic, so it needs little conditioning
- called the Garcia effect and especially strong in children
17
Q
Positive transfer and negative transfer
A
- previous learning that makes it earlier to learn another task later (positive)
- previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task (negative)
18
Q
Educational psychology
A
- concerned with how people learn in educational settings
- examines things like student and teacher attributes and instructional processes in the classroom
- educational psychologists are frequently employed by schools and help when students have academic or behavioral problems
19
Q
Cooperative learning
A
-involves students working on a project together in small groups
20
Q
Surface structure v deep structure
A
- surface: the way that words are organized
- Deep: the underlying meaning
21
Q
Reading and Writing (similarly processed in the brain as what)
A
-processed in the same regions of the brain as producing and understanding speech
22
Q
-Whorfian hypothesis
A
- has been used as an argument for the importance of nonsexist language
- But, it has been found that culture that don’t have words for certain colors can still recognize them, so it is unclear to what extent language really affects our perceptions
23
Q
Vygotsky and Luria
A
- Russia’s best known psychologists
- studied the development of word meanings and found them to be complex and altered by interpersonal experience
- they asserted that language is a tool involved in (not just a byproduct of) the development of abstract thinking
24
Q
Charles Osgood
A
- studied semantics (word meanings)
- created semantic differential charts, which allowed people to plot the meanings of words on graphs
- results showed that people with similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly
- this indicated that words have similar connotations (implied meaning) for cultures or subcultures
25
George Sperling
- found that people could see more than they can remember.
- in his classic experiment, subjects were shown something like this (GRPZ, ILTH, TBAE) for a fraction of a second
- then, they were instructed to write down letters of a particular line
- although they were able to do this, they invariably forgot the other letters in the time it took to write the first ones down
- this partial report shows that sensory memory exists, but only for a few seconds
26
Order of items on a list
-in a recall test involving the order, subjects can more quickly state the order of two items that are far apart on the list than two items that are close together
27
tachtiscope
- an instrument often used in cognitive or memory experiments
- presents visual material (words or images) to subjects for a fraction of second
28
mediation
- the intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response
- reminds us what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning
29
Semantic effect
- logical reasoning error
- believing in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather than what logically follows from information given
30
Decision making
- working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution is found
- research indicated that the process of reaching a solution is usually based on some sort of assumption, which could either be rational or irrational, and the solution is usually found by relying on reasoning and/or emotion.
31
Cognitive-theory of emotion
-another name for the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
32
Reception
- takes place when receptors for a particular sense detect a stimulus
- the receptive field if the part of the worlds that triggers a particular neuron
33
Sensory transduction
- the process in which physical sensation is changed into electrical messages that the brain can understand.
- at the heart of the senses
34
Structuralist theory of perception
- asserts that perception if the sum total of sensory input
| - the world is understood through bottom-up processing
35
Perceptual development (James Gibson)
- the increasing ability of a child to make finer discriminations among stimuli
- the optic array, or all of the things a person sees, trains people to perceive
36
What is light composed of
-photons and waves measures by brightness and wavelengths
37
Ciliary muscles
-alls the leans to bend (accommodate) in order to focus an image on the outside world onto the retina
38
What is the retina composed of
-about 132 million photoreceptor cells and of other cell layers that process information
39
Receptor cells
- rods and cones
- on the retina are responsible for sensory transduction.
- this happens through the chemical alteration of photopigments
40
What happens after light passes through the receptors
- travels through the horizontal cells
- to the bipolar cells
- to the amacrine cells
- some information processing probably takes place along the way
- finally, the information heads to the ganglion cells, which make up the optic nerve
41
Optic Chiasm
- half of the fibers from the optic nerve of each eye cross over and join the optic nerve from the other eye
- this, the pathways are 50% crossed
- this ensures that input from each eye will come together for a full picture in the brain
- after the optic chiasm, the information travels through the striate cortex to the visual association areas of the cortex
42
Where do the opponent-process theory and the tri-color theory take place
- opponent-process theory seems to be at work in the lateral geniculate body
- tri-color theory seems to be at work in the retina
43
lateral inhibition
- allows the eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive information from being sent to the brain
- this complex process is the idea that once one receptor cell is stimulated, the others nearby are inhibited
44
Hubel and Wiesel
-discovered that cells in the visual cortex are so complex and specialized that they respond only to certain types of stimuli
45
figure and ground relationship
-refers to the relationship between the meaningful part of a picture (the figure) and the background (the ground)
46
McCollough effect (afterimages)
are perceived because of fatigued receptors
47
Dark adaptations
-the result of regeneration of retinal pigment
48
Mental sets
-factor into why we see what we expect to see
49
Minimum principle
-the tendency to see what is easiest or logical to see
50
Purkinje shift
- the way that perceived color blindness changes with the level of illumination in the room
- with lower levels of illumination, the extremes of the color spectrum (especially red) are seen as less bright
51
Pattern recognition
-most often explained by template matching and feature detection
52
Weber's law
- applies to all senses but only to a limited range of intensities
- states that a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order to be notices as noticeably different
53
Fechner's law
- built on and more complicated than Weber's law
| - the strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation
54
J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)
- subjects detect stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to
- factors motivation into the picture, which changes the idea of purely mathematical equations and explains why subjects respond inconsistently
- partly motivated by rewards and costs in detection
- this is response bias
55
Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves
-graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus
56
Timbre
-comes from the complexity of the sound wave
57
Traveling wave
movement on the basilar membrane
58
Vestibular sacs
- also respond to hair movement
| - sensitive to tilt and provide our sense of balance
59
Receptor cells in the inner ear
-activate nerve cells that change the information into an electrical message that the brain can process
60
Auditory system that leads to the auditory cortex
- olivary nucleus
- inferior colliculus
- medial geniculate body
61
Sound localization
- achieved in different ways
- the degree to which one of our ears hears a sound prior to and more intensely than the other can give us information about the origin of the sound
- high-frequency sounds are localized by intensity differences, whereas low-frequency sounds are localized by phase differences
62
Dichotic presentation
- often used in studies of auditory perception and selective attention
- subject is presented with a different verbal message in each ear
- subjects are asked to shadow, or repeat, one of the messages to ensure the other message is not consciously attended to
63
Meissner's corpuscles
-receptors in skin that detect tough or contact
64
Pacinian corpuscles
-touch receptors that respond quickly to displacements of sin
65
Size of two-point threshold for touch
-largely determines by the density and layout of nerves
66
Melzack and Wall's Gate Control Theory of Pain
- looks at pain as a process rather than just a simple sensation governed in one center in the brain
- assert that pain perception is related to the interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from the spine
- pain may or may not be perceived depending on different factors, including cognition
67
Endorphins
-neuromodulators that kick in to reduce or eliminate the perception of pain
68
Simulations
-use perceptual cures to make artificial situations seem real
69
Subliminal perception
-perceiving a stimulus that one is not consciously aware of
70
osmorereceptors
-deal with thirst
71
Cortical association areas
-the larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed is the corresponding function
72
Stereotaxic instruments
-used to implant electrodes into animals' brains in experiments
73
Neuromodulators
-are like neurotransmitters, but they cause long-term changes in the postsynaptic cell
74
REM sleep
- also known as paradoxical sleep
- in this state, beta waves and a person's physiological signs (heart rate, etc) resemble those in a waking state, but muscle tone decreases to the point of paralysis, with sudden twitches, especially in the face and hands
- lasts from 15 minutes at the beginning of a sleep cycle to 1 hour at the end of it
75
rebound effect
- occurs when people are deprived of REM sleep
| - they will compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night
76
Sleep cycles
- people complete 4-6 each night
- each cycle lasts about 90 minutes
- early in the night, most of the time is spent in Stage 3 and 4 sleep
- Stage 2 and REM sleep predominate later on in the night
77
Comparative psychology
- closely related to ethology
- through research studies, different species are compared in order to learn about their similarities and differences
- psychology draws from animal studies to gain insight into human functioning
78
Queen bee
- constantly tended to and fed by all other bees (female working bees)
- in the spring, she lays thousands of eggs
- as these eggs mature, scouts find a new hive site for the old queen and her workers
- when a new queen is ready to emerge in a hive, the old queen and her crew depart for a new site
79
Kohler chimp experiment
- chimps only had to use tools (long sticks) or create props (stack boxes) to retrieve rewards
- only through insight could the chimp accomplish this
80
Psychoanalytic theory
- views conflict as central to human nature
- conflict is that between different drives (particularly conscious and unconscious) vying for expression
- individual is motivated by drive reduction
- originally, freud said that an individual's greatest conflict was that between libido and the ego
- later, said that the true conflict is that between eros (life instinct, including love and sex) and thanatos (the death instinct, including self-destructive behavior)
- "the aim of all life is death"
- initially, freud preferred a topographic model of mental life in which conscious elements were openly acknowledged forces and unconscious elements, such as drives and wishes, were many layers below
- later, freud said the model of mental life was structural, meaning that mental life has particular organization other than layers
81
Psychoanalytic abnormal theory
- he often worked with women who were hysterical or neurotic
- he said these conditions and other abnormal ones were the result of repressed drives and conflicts, which become manifested in dysfunctional ways
- pathological behavior, dreams, and unconscious behavior are all symptoms of underlying, unresolved conflict, which are manifested when the ego does not find acceptable ways to express conflict (this ic called psychic determinism)
82
Psychoanalytic therapy
- seen four to five times per week
- used hypnosis (borrowed from Charcot and Janet) and free association (developed by Breuer)
- this discharge of emotion is called catharsis or abreaction
- object relations therapy: when the therapist uses the patient's transference to help him or her resolve the problems that were a result of previous relationships by correcting the emotional experience in the therapist-patient relationship
83
Goal of psychoanalytic therapy
- aims to lessen the unconscious pressures on the individual by making as much of this material conscious as possible
- this allows the ego to be a better mediator of forces
84
Criticisms of psychoanalytic theory
- Freud has been criticized for his methodology
| - developed theories from single case studies of women
85
Aggression
central force in humans that must find a socially acceptable outlet
86
reaction formation
- defense mechanism
| - embracing feelings or behaviors opposite to the true threatening feelings that one has
87
Compensation
- defense mechanism
| - excelling in one are to make up for short comings in another
88
Sublimation
- defense mechanism
| - channeling threatening drives into acceptable outlets
89
Identification
- defense mechanism
| - imitating a central figure in one's life
90
Undoing
- defense mechanism
| - performing a ritualistic activity in order to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives
91
Manifest v Latent content in dreams
manifest: the actual content of dreams
latent: the unconscious forces the dreams are trying to express
92
Screen memory
-memories that serve as representations of important childhood memories
93
Individual Theory (Alderian theory)
- Alfred Adler
- people are viewed as creative, social, and whole as opposed to Freud's more negative and structural approach
- described people in the process of realizing themselves or in the process of "becoming"
- during this journey, the person is motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the ideal self
- a healthy individual pursues goals in spite of feelings of inferiority, has the a "will to power" or quest for feelings of superiority
- on this quest, a healthy individual will pursue goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society
94
Abnormal theory of individual theory
- unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power
- they make excuses or have a "yes, but" mentality.
- if they do pursue goals, these are likely to be self-serving and egotistical
95
Therapy in individual theory
- a psychodynamic approach in which unconscious feelings do play a role
- more importantly, is the examination of a person's lifestyle and choices
- a patient may examine his own motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources
96
Goals of therapy in individual theory
-aims to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contributions in patients
97
Criticisms of individual theory
-best used with "normal" people in search of growth
98
Adler's personality typology
- based on personal activity and social interest
- ruling-dominant (choleric): high in activity but low in social contribution, dominant
- getting-learning type (phlegmatic): low in activity and high in social contribution, dependent
- avoiding type (melancholic): low in activity and low in social contribution, withdrawn
- socially useful type (sanguine): high in activity and high in social contribution, healthy
99
Analytical Theory
- Jung
- felt that Freud places too much emphasis on libido
- postulated that the psyche was directed toward life and awareness (rather than sex)
- in each person, the psyche contains conscious and unconscious elements
- the unconscious is divided into two types: personal and unconscious
- the archetype: universally meaningful concepts, passed down through the collective unconscious since the beginning of man; allow us to organize our experiences with consistent themes and are indicated by cross-cultural similarity in symbols, folklore, and myths
100
Most common archetypes
- persona: a person's outer mask
- shadow: a person'd dark side, often projected onto others
- anima: the female elements that a man possesses
- animus: the male elements that a female possessed
- self: the full individual potential, symbolized in cultures by figures such as Buddha or Jesus, and by the mandala
101
Analytical Abnormal Theory
- psychopathology is the signal that something is wrong in the makeup of the psyche
- is provides clues about how one could become more aware
102
Analytical theory therapy
- psychodynamic because unconscious elements are addressed
- in order to become more aware, unconscious material is explored through the analysis of an individual's dreams, artwork, and personal symbols
103
Goals of analytical theory therapy
-use unconscious messages in order to become more aware and closer to full potential
104
Criticisms of analytical theory
-many scientists view it as too mystical or spiritual
105
Client-centered theory (person centered or Rogerian theory)
- rogers
- is humanistic in that is has an optimistic outlook on human nature
- main tenet is that individuals have an actualizing tendency that can direct them out of conflict and toward their full potential (which is best accomplished in an atmosphere that fosters growth)
106
client-centered abnormal theory
- people who lack congruence between their real selves and their conscious self-concept develop psychological tension
- incongruence occurs when feelings or experiences are inconsistent with the acknowledged concept of the self
107
Client-centered theraoy
- directed by the client, who decided how often to meet and what to discuss in sessions
- therapist is nondirective, providing only an atmosphere for the client's self-exploration
- the job of the therapist is to provide: empathy (appreciate rather than just observe client's world, take interest in client's perspective), unconditioned positive regard, genuineness/congruence (therapist should not maintain a professional reserve, but instead speak and act genuinely with a client)
108
Goals of client-centered therapy
-provide a trusting atmosphere in which the client can engage in self-directed growth and tap his own "vast resources". evidence of growth includes a congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, and internal locus of evaluation, and willingness to experience
109
criticisms of client-centered theory
- rogers used no diagnostic tools because he believed that client-centered therapy applied to any psychological problem
- many disagree with him
110
Behavior theory
- skinner, pavlov, wolpe
- application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior based on learning
- change maladaptive behavior through learning
- radical behavioralism: associated with Skinner's operant ideas that behavior is related only to its consequences.
- neobehavioralism: uses Pavlov's classical counterconditioning principles to create new responses to stimuli
111
Behavior abnormal theory
-abnormal behavior is simply the result of learning
112
Behavior theory theray
-generally short-term and directed
-uses specific counterconditioning techniques, such as:
~systematic desensitization: developed by Wolpe,
applies classical conditioning in order to relieve anxiety.
Patient is exposed to increasingly anxiety-provoking
stimuli until the anxiety associated with those stimuli is
decreased.
~Flooding or impulsive therapy: applied classical
conditioning in order to relieve anxiety. Client is
repeatedly exposed to an anxiety-producing stimulus, so
that the overexposure leads to lessened anxiety
~aversion therapy: employs classical conditioning in
order to increase anxiety. An anxiety-reaction is created
where there previously was none. This is generally used
to treat addiction and fetishes
~shaping uses operant conditioning
~modeling: exposes the client to more adaptive
behaviors
~assertiveness training: provides tools and experience
through which the client can become more assertive
~role playing: allows a client to practice new behaviors
and responses
113
Goal of behavior therapy
to change behavior in the desired or adaptive direction.
-been extremely successful in creating phobias, fetishes, OCD, sexual problems, and childhood disorders (particularly nocturnal enuresis or bed-wetting)
114
Criticisms of behavior theory
-been accused of treating the symptoms rather than the underlying problem
115
Cognitive Theory
- Aaron Beck
- gives conscious through patterns (as opposed to emotions or behaviors) the starring role in people's lives
- the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is used most frequently as a research tool to determine the number of depressive symptoms a person has, but it has been used in clinical setting as well
- the way a person interprets experience, rather than the experience itself, is what's importangt
116
Abnormal theory of cognitive theory
-maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behavior or disturbed affect
-various types of maladaptive cognitions exist:
~arbitrary inference: drawing a conclusion without solid evidence
~overgeneralization: mistaking isolated incidents for the norm
~magnifying/minimizing: making too much or too little of something
~personalization: inappropriately taking responsibility
~dichotomous thinking: black-and-white thinking
-postulated that a cognitive triad causes depression
-BDI measures such views and is used to gauge the severity oof diagnosed depression
117
Cognitive Therapy
- directed therapy helps to expose and restructure maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns.
- this is generally short-term therapy in which the therapist focuses on tangible evidence of the client's logic
118
Goals of cognitive theray
-to direct maladaptive cognitions
119
Criticisms of cognitive therapy
- addresses how a person thinks, rather than why the thought patterns were initially developed.
- removing the symptoms may not cure the problem
120
Rational-emotive theory
- Ellis
- includes elements of cognitive, behavioral, and emotion theory.
- believed that intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior
121
Abnormal theory of rational-emotive theory
-psychological tension is created when an activating event occurs, and a client applies certain beliefs about that event, and this leads to the consequences of emotional disruption
122
Rational-emotive therapy
- highly directive
| - therapist leads the client to dispute the previously applied irrational beliefs
123
Goals of rational-emotive therapy
- effective rational beliefs to replace previous self-defeating ones.
- then, a client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can coexist
124
Criticisms of rational-emotive theory
-too sterile and mechanistic
125
Gestalt Theory
- Perls, Wertheimer, Koffka
- encourages people to stand apart from beliefs, biases, and attitudes derived from the past
- the goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a whole and integrated person
126
Gestalt abnormal theory
- abnormal behavior is derived from disturbances of awareness
- client may not have insight (the ability to see how all the pieces of experience fit together), or the client may not fully experience his present situation (choosing not to acknowledge certain aspects of the situation)
127
Gestalt therapy
- therapist engages in a dialogue with the client, rather than leading the client toward any particular goal
- client learns from the shared dialogue
- together, they focus on the here-and-now experience, rather than talking about the past
128
Goal of gestalt therapy
- exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present
- successful therapy connects the client and her present existence
129
Criticisms of gestalt therapy
-not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients
130
Existential Theory
- Frankl
- revolves around age-old philosophical issues, particularly the issue of meaning
- a person's greatest struggles are those of being v nonbeing and of meaningfulness v meaninglessness
- individual is constantly striving to rise above a simple behavioral existence and toward a genuine and meaningful existence
- "will to meaning"
- Rollo May is major contributor to existential therapy
131
Existential abnormal theory
-the response to perceived meaninglessness in life in neurosis or neurotic anxiety (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)
132
Existential therapy
-talking therapy in which deep questions relating to the client's perception and meaning of existence are discussed
133
Goals of Existential therapy
-increase client's sense of being and meaningfulness, which will alleviate neurotic anxiety
134
Criticisms of existential therapy
-too abstract for severely disturbed individuals
135
Antipsychotics
- first drugs used for psychopathology
- usually used to treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors and inhibiting dopamine production
- ex: chlorpormazine and haloperidol
136
Antimanics
- drugs of choice to manage bipolar disorder
| - inhibit monoamines, based on the theory that mania results from excessive monoamines
137
Antidepressants
- theory is that abnormally low levels of monoamines cause depression
- these drugs act to increase the production and transmission of various monoamines
138
Anxiolytics
- used to reduce anxiety or to induce sleep, usually by increasing the effectiveness of GABA
- high potential for causing habituation and addiction
139
Antabuse
-drug that changes the metabolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea and vomiting when combined with alcohol
140
Hans Eysenck
- criticized the effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all
- other studies have since contradicted this point
141
Anna Freud
-applied Freudian ideas to child psychology and development
142
Melanie Klein
-pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children
143
Karen Horney
- neo-freudian
- emphasized culture and society of instinct
- suggested that neuroticism is expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people
144
Harry Stack Sullivan
-emphasized social and interpersonal relationships
145
psychodynamic theory
-general term that refers to theories that emphasize the role of the unconscious
146
Humanistic theory
- emphasize positive, evolving free will in people
| - also known as the "third force" in psychotherapy in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism
147
Stress-inoculation training
-developed by Donald Meichenbaum, prepares people for foreseeable stressors
148
Applied psychology
-branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems
149
IQ scores of mental retardation
- IQ of 70 or below
- mild= 55-70
- moderate= 40-55
- severe= 25-40
- profound= <25
150
Delirium
-indicated by disturbed consciousness (awareness, attention, focus) and cognition (memory, disorientation)
151
Huntington's disease
-genetically inherited progressive degeneration of thought, emotion, and movement
152
Pick's disease
-disease of the frontal and temporal loves of the brain characterized by changes in personality
153
Disorganized schizophrenia
- aka hebephrenic schizophrenia
| - indicated by disorganized speech and behavior and flat affect
154
undifferentiated schizophrenia
-different schizophrenia symptoms, not fitting into a particular type
155
Delusional disorder
- persistent delusions of various types
- erotomanic: that another person is in love with the individual
- grandiose: that one has a special talent or status
- jealousy
- persecutory
- somatic: bodily, such as believing a part of the the body is ugly or misshappen)
156
Shares psychotic disorder
- aka foli a deux
| - when two people have shares delusions
157
Kletpmania
irresistible impulse to steal
158
Pyromania
Irresistible impulse to set fires
159
Neuroleptic drugs
-reduce dopamine activity by blocking dopamine receptors; thereby reducing schizophrenic symptoms
160
Tardive dyskinesia
- can result from the long-term use of neuroleptics of psychotropics
- characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements of the tongue, jaw, or extremities
161
Cretinism
-different form of mental retardation that is caused by iodine deficiency
162
Wernicke's syndrome
- caused by thiamine deficiency
| - characterized by memory problems and eye dysfunctions
163
Tay-Sachs disease
- recessive, genetic deficiency of hexosaminidase
| - may have symptoms that resemble psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia or dementia
164
Occurrence rates of depression
- higher in developed countries
| - women are two times more likely to be diagnosed with a unipolar depression than men
165
Reactive depression
- depression resulting from particular events
| - noted for its similarity to Martin Seligmen's idea of learned helplessness
166
Depressive realism
-refers to the finding that depressed people tend to be more realistic about life than the nondepressed
167
Schizophrenic mother
- Fromm and Reichmen
| - refers to a type of mother who supposedly causes children to become schizophrenic
168
Health psychology
- studies the biological, behavioral, and social impacts on health and illness
- when your level of stress is increased, you're more likely to get sick
- having a lot of social support is associated with better health outcomes
169
Axes of the DSM
1: clinical disorder and other conditions (categories 1-15_
2: personality disorders (category 16) and mental retardation
3: general medical conditions
4: psychosocial and environmental problems
5: global assessment of functioning
170
community psychology
- model in which psychology is taken into the community vis community centers or schools
- emphasized respect and also recognized the logistics that keep the neediest people from seeking help
171
Stages after conception
- six weeks after conception, the presence of H-Y antigen causes testis to form, while the absence of it causes ovaries to form
- about 3 months after conception, the testes secrete testosterone, which results in the formation of the rest of the male reproductive system
- the absence of testosterone results in the formation of the female reproductive system
172
neonate
newborn
173
sensorimotor stage
- 0-2 years
- first, reflexive behavior cued by sensations
- then circular reactions (repeated behavior intended to manipulate environment)
- later, development of object permanence
- finally, acquiring the use of representation (visualizing or putting words to objects)
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Pre-operational stage
- 2-7 years
- egocentric understanding
- rapidly acquiring words as symbols for things
- inability to perform mental operations, such as causality or true understanding of quantity
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Formal operational
- 12+
| - understanding abstract relationships, such as logic, ratios, and values
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Gelman
- showed that Piaget might have underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers.
- said that they can deal with ideas such as quantities in small sets of objects
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Piaget's moral development
- book Moral Judgement of the Child
- 4-7 years: imitates rule-following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules
- 7-11 years: understands rules and follows them
- 12+ years: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree
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Freud's personality development
- driving forces behind humans and their development as sexual
- this force meant sensual gratification and not just "sex"
- so his five stages deal with how the individual meets these sensual gratification or biological needs
- parental over or under indulgence at a particular stage might result in fixation (inability to move on to the next stage)
- life stressors might result in regression
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Oral
- birth-18 months
| - receives pleasure orally through sucking, eating, biting
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Anal
- 18 months-3 years
| - receives pleasure with control and release of feces
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Phallic
- 3-6 years
- receives pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals
- boys will develop an Oedipus complex (jealous of father, in love with mother)
- girls develop Electra complex (angry with mother, in love with father because of penis envy)
- both resolve conflict by end of stage by identifying with the same-sex parent
- boys are motivated to suppress their lust by castration anxiety
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Latency
- adolescence
- repressed sexuality
- identification with same-sex friends
- focus on school and growing up
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Genital
- adolescence-adulthood
- hormones reawaken sexual instincts
- love object is now non-familial
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Preconventional/Premoral stage (Kohlberg)
-level 1: should avoid punishment
| level 2: should gain rewards
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Conventional/morality of conformity (Kohlberg)
- level 3: should gain approval
| - level 4: should follow law and authority
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Postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles (Kohlberg)
- level 5: beyond the black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare
- level 6: makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles
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Carol Gilligan
-asserted that Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased toward males because it was dominated by rules, whereas women's morality focuses more on compassion
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John Bowlby
- suggested infants are motivated to attach to their mothers for positive reasons (wanting closeness) and for negative reasons (avoiding fear)
- emphasized the importance of the mother-infant attachment during the infant's sensitive period to prevent character and stability problems
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Carold Baumrind
- studied the relationship between parenting style and personality development
- looked at parenting styles
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Watson's behavioristic approach to development
-children were passively molded by the environment and that their behavior emerges through imitation of their parents
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Motor development
- through the first two years: largely controlled by internal, maturation factors
- but, countless studies have shown that interacting with infants through attention and affection fosters their physical, emotional, and intellectual development
- neglected children in institutions and orphanages show higher incidences os mental retardation and mortality, and poorer physical development
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Arnold Gessell
- early child developmentalist
- believed that nature provided only a "blueprint for development" through maturation and that environment or nurture filled in the details
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Aggressive children
-children identified as aggressive at an early age have a moderate tendency to remain aggressive through later life
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Sex-typed behavior
- behavior that seems stereotypical for gender
- low during prepubescence
- highest in young adulthood
- lower again in later life
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Puberty in boys
-boys who reach puberty sooner rather than later have been shown to be psychologically and socially advantaged
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Hermaphrodite or intersex
- born with both genitals
| - most likely the result of a female fetus being exposed to a higher than normal level of testosterone
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Symbolic play
- usually begins when children are 1-2 years old
- pretend roles, imagination, and using objects to represent other things
- they can now understand the concept of having one object stand for another
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Parallel play
- 2-3 years old
- when 2 children are standing next to each other and playing in similar styles but are playing by themselves and not interacting with one another
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Gordon Allport
- emphasized an ideographic approach to personality theory
- concerned with only conscious motives governed by the proprium or propriate function (his version of the ego)
- he believed that the propium acted somewhat consistently based on traits it has developed through experience
- worked to identify all of the possible traits that could go with personality
- using a lexical approach (picking all of the possible traits out of the dictionary), he got 5,000 possible traits
- later, statistical techniques were used to create taxonomies
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traits v states
- traits: relatively stable characteristics of behavior that a person exhibits, such as introversion, politeness, and stinginess
- states: temporary feelings or characteristics
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Theories of personality
- dispositionists: people who emphasized internal determinants of behavior
- sitationtionists (like behaviorists): argued that only circumstances determine behavior
- interactionists: in the forefront, they assert a combination of stable, internal factors and situations
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Seymour Epstein and Walte Mischel
- said that trait and type theories have always had a big problem:
- both theories assume that a person's behavior is stable across situations and that people fail to take circumstances into account
- studies and real life show that people often act differently in different situations
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consistency paradox
the possibility that a person may behave inconsistently
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Mischel and Cantor
- proposed the cognitive prototype approach, in which cognitive behavior (such as the formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations
- consistency of behavior is the result of cognitive processes rather than the result of personality
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Twin studies and personality
-shown that the heritability of personality if about 40-45 percent
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Deaux
- found that women's successes at stereotypical "male" tasks are often attributed to luck, while men's successes are often attributed to skill
- studies also show that women attribute their success to luck more than men, indicating women have lower self-esteem
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Sandra Bem
- created the Bem Sex Role Inventory
| - androgynous individuals have been found to have higher self esteem, lower anxiety, and more adaptability
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Matina Horner
-suggested that females shunned masculine-type successes not because of fear of failure or lack of interest, but because they feared success and its negative repercussions
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Alie Eagly
-found an interaction between gender and social status with regard to how easily an individual might be influenced or swayed
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Maccoby and Jacklin
-scrutinized studies of sex differences and found that relatively few existed that could not be explained away by simple social learning
-most consistent difference that seems independent of social influence is that females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability
-
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Freidman and Resenman
-studied type A personality (which is characterized by drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension, and hostility) and most commonly found in middle-to upper-class men
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Dahlstrom
-linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
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Authoritarianism
- the disposition to view the world as full of power relationships
- authoritarian individuals are highly domineering(if they are the top dog of the situation) or highly submissive (if they are in the presence of a more powerful figure)
- likely conventional, aggressive, stereotyping, and anti-introspective
- measured by the F-scale (aka the Fascism scale_
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Eysenck
- used factor analysis to identify the underlying traits of the two personality-type dimensions: introversion-extraversion and stable-unstable (neuroticism)
- these two dimensions formed a cross and four quadrants: phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine
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George Kelley
-suggested that personal constructs (conscious ideas about the self, others, and situations) determine personality and behavior
216
Implicit theories
-people making assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person
217
Phenomenological view
-view of personality theory (or psychotherapy) that focuses on the individual's unique self and experiences
218
self-efficacy
-a person's belief that he or she can effectively perform a certain task
219
self-handicapping
self-defeating behavior that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure
220
Costa and McCrae
-found that personality changes very little after age 30
221
Richard Nisbett
-we lack awareness for why we do what we do
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Philip Zimbardo
-people who were wearing hoods were more willing to administer higher levels of shock in the Milgram experiment
223
Rodin and Langer
-found that nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates
224
Hazel Markus
-found that Eastern countries, in contrast to Western, value interdependence over independence
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Socrates
-original philosophic mentor who pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty, and justice
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Plato
- was Socrates' pupil
- declared that the physical world was not all that could be known
- asserted the presence of universal forms and innate knowledge
- was abstract and unsystematic
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Aristotle
- Plato's pupil
- recognized as world's first professor
- studied order and logic
- believed that truth would be found in the physical world
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Hobbes
- humans and other animals were machines and that sense-perception was all that could be known
- suggested that a science could be formed to explain people just as physics explained the machines of the world
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Spurzheim
-carried out Gall's work in phrenology
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Galton
-he wrote Hereditary Genius and used Darwinian principles to promote eugenics
231
Herbert Spencer
-wrote Principles of Psychology and became the father of the psychology of adaptation (and the founder of sociology)
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Piaget's three classic works
- The Language and Thought of the Child
- The Moral Judgment of the Child
- The Origins of Intelligence in Children
233
Binet's equation for IQ, mean and SD of IQ in Americans
(mental age/chronological age) X 100
- mean:100
- SD: 15 or 16
234
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
- revised version of Binet's original test
- used with children and is organized by age level
- best known predictor of future academic achievement
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WAIS
- adult: most commonly used intelligence test for adults
- WISC . got ages 6-16
- Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence for children 4-6
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Goodenough Draw-A-Man test
-for children
-cross-cultural application
"Make a picture of a man. Make the very best picture you can"
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Zajonc
- studied the relationship between birth order and intelligence
- first borns: slightly more intelligent than second borns and so on
- the more children present in a family, the less intelligent they were likely to be
- greater spaces between children linked to higher intelligence
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Q-sort or Q-measure
- process of sorting cards into a normal distribution
- each card has a different statement on it pertaining to personality
- subject places the cards that he is neutral about at the hump of the curve, toward one end he places cards he deems "very characteristic" of him and the opposite on the other end
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Myers-Brigg Type Indicator
- personality test derived from Jung's personality theory
- when scores, a person is given a 4 letter "personality type" with each letter representing either: introverted or extraverted, sensing or intuition, feeling or thinking, and judgement or perception
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Rosenzweig Picture Frustration (P-F) study
- consists of cartoons in which one person is frustrating another person
- subject is asked to describe how the frustrated person responds
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Draw-A-Person Test
-asks the subject to draw a person of each sex and to tell a story about them
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Anna Anastasi
-researched intelligence in relation to performance
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development
- not intelligence tests
- measure the sensory and motor development of infants in order to identify mentally retarded children
- poor predictors of later intelligence
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Reactance
-an attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited
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Analysis of Covariance
- tests whether at least two groups co-vary
| - can adjust for preexistsing differences between groups
246
Split-halt reliability
- measured by comparing an individual's performance on two halves of the same test
- reveals internal consistency of a test
247
Campbell and Fiske
-creates the multitrain-multimethod technique to determine the validity of tests
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Concrete operational
- 7-12 years
- understanding of concrete relationships, such as simple math and quantity
- development of conservation
