PSYCH BASICS Flashcards
What is ethics in research?
Morals and standards of conduct
Researchers must weigh the costs to participants against the benefits of the research.
What is required for consent in research?
Participants must be informed of the aims of the investigation and all aspects that may influence their participation
Retrospective consent can be gained in the debrief.
What is confidentiality in research?
Information obtained about a participant is confidential unless otherwise agreed
Anonymity should be assured if published.
What is meant by careful use of deception in research?
Deceiving participants about the purpose of the experiment may be necessary
It should only be allowed when benefits outweigh the costs.
What is the responsibility of investigators regarding participant harm?
To protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation
Participants should leave in the same state they arrived.
What is debriefing in research?
Providing participants with necessary information to complete their understanding of the research
It does not justify unethical aspects of the investigation.
What are the two main types of data in research?
- Quantitative
- Qualitative
Each type serves different research aims.
What is the aim of quantitative data?
To characterize behaviour of large groups of individuals
What is the aim of qualitative data?
In-depth and rich understanding of a particular case or phenomenon
What characterizes quantitative data?
Numbers
It is more objective and often involves experimental methods.
What characterizes qualitative data?
Text
It is more subjective and often involves methods like interviews and case studies.
What is an experiment in psychology?
Manipulation of an independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable
It aims to control confounding variables.
What is the scientific method in psychology?
Starts with a psychological phenomenon, formulates a theory and hypothesis, conducts research to test the theory
Results support or refute the theory.
What does it mean for psychology to be objective?
Results are not influenced by personal feelings, attitudes, or opinions
This minimizes potential sources of bias.
What are constructs and variables in research?
- A variable is any characteristic that is objectively registered and quantified
- A construct is any theoretically defined variable
Examples include violence, attraction, memory.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
Predicts an impact on the dependent variable but not how
Used if there is no previous research.
What is a directional hypothesis?
Predicts how the independent variable will impact the dependent variable
Used when replicating previous research.
What is a null hypothesis?
States the results are not significant
Typically tested against the main hypothesis.
What are true/laboratory experiments?
Conducted in an artificial/controlled environment
They lower ecological validity but have higher internal validity.
What are the strengths of true experiments?
- Cause and effect can be established
- High reliability due to standardized procedures
They allow for replication.
What are the limitations of true experiments?
- Lack of ecological validity
- Demand characteristics may affect results
Participants may alter behavior based on what they think is expected.
What are field experiments?
Conducted in a natural environment with manipulation of the independent variable
They have higher ecological validity but lower internal validity.
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- High ecological validity
- More natural participant behavior
Participants are often unaware they are part of an experiment.
What are the limitations of field experiments?
- Less control over extraneous variables
- Difficulty in replication
This can weaken cause and effect establishment.
What are natural experiments?
Conducted in participants’ natural environment without manipulation of independent variables
They are often longitudinal in nature.
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- Allow study of phenomena that cannot be replicated ethically or practically
- Higher ecological validity
Changes in the independent variable occur naturally.
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
- No cause and effect can be established
- Not easily replicable
They may lack internal validity.
What are quasi experiments?
Do not involve random allocation and group participants based on characteristics
They are correlational in nature.
What are the strengths of quasi experiments?
- Allow study on pre-existing groups
- Useful when manipulation is unethical or impractical
They can be similar to experiments in design.
What are the limitations of quasi experiments?
- Cause and effect cannot be established
- Little control over extraneous variables
Pre-existing groups may introduce confounding variables.
What are correlational studies?
Measure the relationship between two or more variables
They identify trends but cannot establish cause and effect.
What is a survey in research?
Collects large amounts of data quickly through self-report
It can be influenced by response bias.
What is the difference between independent measures and repeated measures in experimental design?
- Independent measures: Different groups for each condition
- Repeated measures: Same group in all conditions
This affects participant variables and validity.
What is a repeated measures design?
Testing the same group of people in different conditions
Example: A group learns a speech with the television on and then in silence, and their recall is compared.
What are the strengths of repeated measures design?
- Participant variables are eliminated
- Greater control over variables
- Comparisons are made within the same group
What are the limitations of repeated measures design?
- Order effects may occur
- Greater chance of demand characteristics
- Fatigue and boredom can affect results
What is counterbalancing in repeated measures design?
A method to avoid order effects by varying the order of conditions for participants
What is a matched pairs design?
Testing separate groups of people who are matched on specific characteristics
Example: Matching children based on age, gender, and social background.
What are the strengths of matched pairs design?
- No order or practice effects occur
- Attempts to control participant variables
What are the limitations of matched pairs design?
- Difficult to match on all characteristics
- Time-consuming to find matching participants
Define placebo effect.
When participants improve just because they believe they are receiving a treatment
What is the single blind technique?
When the participant does not know if they are in the treatment or control group
What is the double blind technique?
Neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group the participant is in
Define causation.
One event is the result of the occurrence of another event
Define correlation.
A relationship between two variables where changes in one variable relate to changes in another
What is a correlation coefficient?
A statistic that describes the relationship between two sets of paired data
What are the possible values of a correlation coefficient?
- +1 positive correlation
- 0 no correlation
- -1 negative correlation
When should correlational methods be used?
- When manipulation of variables is not possible
- When ethical concerns prevent experimental research
What are the strengths of correlational research?
- Good for measuring strength of relationships
- High ecological validity
- Little manipulation needed
What are the weaknesses of correlational research?
- Cannot establish cause and effect
- Presence of confounding variables may affect internal validity
What is the purpose of obtaining a representative sample?
To generalize findings to the wider population and ensure the sample is not biased
What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling?
- Probability: Greater chance of representation
- Non-probability: Not focused on generalizing results
What is random sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
What are the strengths of random sampling?
- Avoids researcher bias
- More ethical method
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
- Time-consuming
- Requires identification of the target population
Define opportunity/convenience sampling.
Selecting people who are available to participate at a given time
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
- Convenient and quick
- Cost-effective
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
- May be unrepresentative
- Affected by researcher bias
What is volunteer/self-selected sampling?
Individuals choose to participate, often through advertising
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
- Cost-effective
- Easy to recruit participants
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
- Not representative of the target population
- Possibility of demand characteristics
What is stratified sampling?
Dividing the target population into sections and sampling each section individually
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
- More likely to be representative
- All participant variables are considered
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
- Difficult to identify sub-groups
- Time-consuming and costly
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting members of the population at regular intervals
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
- Ease of use
- Speed of execution
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
- May create a biased sample
- Difficult to generalize results
What is purposive sampling?
Participants are chosen based on specific characteristics relevant to the study
What are the strengths of purposive sampling?
- May give a more representative sample
- Focused on specific characteristics
What are the weaknesses of purposive sampling?
- Affected by researcher bias
- Participants may not be representative
What is snowball sampling?
A small number of participants invite others to join based on their networks
What are the strengths of snowball sampling?
- Useful for hard-to-reach groups
- Can gather participants interested in the study
What are the weaknesses of snowball sampling?
- May create a biased sample
- Not representative of the target population
What are the 6 (/7) ethical considerations?
- Consent
- Confidentiality
- (Careful use of deception)
- Protection of participants
- Debriefing
- Right to withdraw
Aim
The purpose of a study. Indicates which behavior or mental process will be studied.
Operationalize
Variables need to be written in a way that is clear about what is being measured.
Independent Variable
The variable that causes a change in the other variable.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured after the manipulation of the independent variable.
Single Blind
Participants do not know what the study is about.
Double Blind
Participants do not know they are in the treatment or control group
Target Population
The group whose behavior the researcher wishes to investigate.
Sample
The nature of the group of participants.
Opportunity Sample
A sample of whoever happens to be there and agrees to participate.
Self-Selected Sample
Made up of volunteers.
Snowball Sample
Participants recruit other participants from among their friends and acquaintances.
Random Sample
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This is used to obtain a representative sample.
Stratified Sample
Used to have a sample that takes into consideration the diversity of a target population. Draws random samples from each subpopulation within the target population.
Participant Variables
The extent to which the participants share a common set of traits that can bias the outcome of the study.
Validity
Whether the research does what it claims to do.
Ecological Validity
The study represents what happens in real life.
Reliability
The results can be replicated. Usually used in reference to experimental study.
Structured Interview
The interview schedule may state exactly what questions should be asked
Unstructured Interview
Interview schedule only specifies the topic and the available time.
Semi-Structured Interview
Could look like an informal conversation
Case Studies
In a case study
