Psych and Sociology

Question 1

Answer 1

Low Inter-quartile range

Question 2

Phallic

Answer 2

3-6 yrs

Erogenous zones: Genitals (masturbation)

Adult fixation: Oedipus complex (males)

Electra complex (females)

Question 3

Negative punishment

Answer 3

Takes away something desirable to decrease likelihood of behavior happening again; examples:

• Ground (take away freedom) for bad grades
• Take away phone/Internet for hurting younger sibling

Question 4

When are action potential initiated?

Answer 4

When the postsynaptic membrane reaches threshold depolarization of about -50 mV

Decision by a postsynaptic neuron whether to fire an action potential is determine by adding the effect of all of the synapses impinging on a neuron both excitatory and inhibitory (summation)

Question 5

Buffering Hypothesis

Answer 5

Social support serves as a protective layer creating psychological distance between a person and stressful events

Question 6

Micro sociology

Answer 6

• Individual interactions
• Looks at the smallest building blocks of society and works up to larger structures
• Premise: Human behavior is the result of an individual’s interpretation of a social situation

Ex; How does an interaction between a healthcare provider and a patient reflect social inequality?

Question 7

Gestalt

Answer 7

An organized whole is perceived as more than the sum of its individual parts

Humans perceive an object rather than seeing lines, angles, shadows

Question 8

Manifest function

Answer 8

The intended and recognized functions of an institution

Ex: Manifest function of education = To educate people, to provide training for a workforce

Question 9

Social Identity

Answer 9

Consists of all the socially defined attributes defining who you are, including age, race, gender, religion, occupation, etc

Question 10

Biological Perspective on Personality

Answer 10

Psychologist Hans Eysenck most associated with this theory proposed that genetics primarily determine personality

Question 11

Jeffrey Alan Gray

Answer 11

Proposed that personality is governed by interactions among three brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli

Fearfulness and avoidance are linked to the fight or flight sympathetic nervous system, worry and anxiety are linked to the behavioral inhibition system, and optimism and impulsivity are linked to the behavioral approach system

Question 12

Horizontal mobility

Answer 12

Involves a change in occupation or role without a change in the social hierarchy

Question 13

Encoding Strategies

Answer 13

Question 14

Secondary reinforcer

Answer 14

Those that are learned to be reinforcers

Neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned

Ex: Suppose that every time a child reads a book, she receives a stamp

AFter ten stamps, she gets a pizza

Pizza = primary and stamps are secondary

Question 15

Drive-Reduction theory

Answer 15

Suggests that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce that need by engagin in some behavior

Question 16

Just World Belief

Answer 16

When we believe that bad things happen to others because of their own actions or failure to act

Someone is in a terrible auto accident and doesn’t have health insurance; the medical bills bankrupt him You think it was his fault, he should have had insurance

Question 17

Cognitive component of emotion

Answer 17

Includes our appraisal and interpretation of the situation

Question 18

Naom Chomsky

Answer 18

• Linguist proposed an alternative theory
• Humans are born with an innate ability to learn language
• All normally-developing humans learn language when exposed to it within a critical period (after which language acquisition is much harder)
• Chomsky theorized that in the abence of formal language, children would develop their own system of communication to meet their needs

Question 19

Norm of reciprocity

Answer 19

We are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has done us a favor

Question 20

Mechanism of Hearing

Answer 20

Sound waves enter external ear - pass into auditory canal - eardrum vibrates - malleus incus stapes - oval window vibrations cause pressure waves in the perilymph and endolymph the fluid in the cochlea; pressure waves in endolymph cause vibration of basilar membrane which is covered with hair cells that have cilia - hairs contract the tectorial membrane when the basilar membrane moves, hairs are dragged across membrane and bent - neurotransmitter release

Question 21

Hans Eysenck

Answer 21

A person’s level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation (mediates arousal and consciousness)

• Introverts more easily aroused and require and tolerate less external stimulation
• Extroverts are less easily aroused and comfortable in more stimulating environments
• Person’s level of neuroticism and the volume of brain regions involved with processing negative emotions and punishment have correlations

Question 22

Intersectionality

Answer 22

The study of overlapping systems of oppression (gender, race, class, sexuality) and can be used to understand how sytemic injustice and social inequality occur on a multidimensional basis

Question 23

Resting membrane potential

Answer 23

An electric potential across the plasma membrane of approximately -70 mV; interior of the cell negatively charged with respect to the exterior of the cell. Two primary membrane proteins ar required to est the resting membrane potential: the Na+/K+ ATPase and the potassium leak channels

Question 24

Cerebellum

Answer 24

Complex movements are coordinated

Question 25

Nonassociative learning

Answer 25

When an organism is repeatedly exposed to a given stimulus

Ex: Trying to study for MCAT but annoying buzzing sound coming from overhead lights

Question 26

Demographic transition

Answer 26

Transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of a country’s development from a pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes; both fertility and mortality rates decrease

Question 27

Hypnosis

Answer 27

State of consciousness where attention ismore focused and peripheral awareness is reduced

• Some studies demonstrate EEG measures with more low frequency waves and fewer high frequency waves during hypnosis
• Other studies demonstrate a decrease in left-hemisphere activity and an increase in right hemisphere activity during hypnosis

Question 28

Three Versions of the sick role

Answer 28

1. Conditional: condition/illness is temporary (cold, flu)
2. Unconditionally legitimate: condition/illness is incurable (cancer, autism)
3. Illegitimate role: condition/illness that is stigmatized by others (HIV, AIDS, mental illness, lung cancer, STIs)

Question 29

Malthusian Catastrophe

Answer 29

Occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine

Question 30

Unconditioned Stimulus

Answer 30

A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) Think of this reponse like a reflex. It is not a learned reaction, but a bioloigcal one

Ex: The presentation of food is the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation is the unconditioned response

Question 31

Ecclesia

Answer 31

Dominant religious organization that includes most members of society

Recognized as the national or official religion

People do not choose to participate but are born into the social institution

Sweden

Question 32

Stimulus intensity

Answer 32

coded by the frequency of action potentials

Question 33

Behavioral Therapy

Assumed Problem:

Therapy Goals:

Methods and Examples:

Answer 33

Assumed Problem: Learned maladaptive behaviors

Therapy Goals: Extinguish maladaptive behaviors and learn adaptive ones

Methods and Examples: Systematic desensitization, flooding, aversion therapy

Question 34

Nonmaterial culture

Answer 34

Or symbolic culture, consits of the intangible aspects of a culture such as values and beliefs; these concepts and ideas shape who we are and make us different from members of other societies

Question 35

Relearning

Answer 35

Learning something again

Question 36

Behavioral component of emotion

Answer 36

Includes our expressive behaviors that accompany the emotion

Ex: violence, aggression, smiling, running away

Question 37

Freud believed that the Superego, internalized morals and values, developed in male children as a result of what innate mechanism?

Electra complex

Social learning theory

Castration anxiety

Guilt

Answer 37

Freud believed that the Superego, internalized morals and values, developed in male children as a result of castration anxiety. Freud theorized that morality developed in young males out of a fear of their father’s disapproval and the resulting anxiety that their father would castrate them as punishment; to avoid this, the boy attempts to become more like his father, and to identify with him rather than to pursue his mother as a sexual object. Freud did not theorize about social learning; this was Albert Bandura’s theory describing the manner in which children could learn through observation. The Electra complex was never created or referred to specifically by Freud; it was created by others to address the gender imbalance in his theories, which did not specifically address how girls developed. Freud did not believe that young children developed feelings of guilt until after the development of the Superego.

Question 38

Parasomnias

Answer 38

Abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep

Question 39

Recognition

Answer 39

Picking the correct answer out of several options

Question 40

Feminist Theory

Answer 40

This theory encompasses a variety of perspectives on the different experiences and treatment of men vs women

Cn be macro or micro

Question 41

Person situation controversy (trait versus state controversy)

Answer 41

Considers the degree to which a person’s reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to the situation itself

Question 42

Raymond Cattell

Answer 42

Porposed two types of intelligence: fluid intelligence( ability to “think on your feet” and solve novel problems) and crystallized intelligence (the ability to recall and apply already learned information)

Question 43

Integration technique

Answer 43

This technique involves gaining compliance by gaining personal approval from an individual first

Question 44

Sikhism

Answer 44

• Monotheistic
• 0.35%
• One god and the teachings of the ten gurus

Question 45

Democracy

Answer 45

A political system in which citizens periodically choose officials to run their government

Question 46

As a social institution, what is family?

Answer 46

A socially defined set of relationships between at least two individuals related by birth, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed upon relationship

Three important functions

1. child rearing

2, identity formation

3. cultural transmission

Question 47

Anterograde amnesia vs retrograde amnesia

Answer 47

A: INability to encode new memories

R: An inability to recall new information that was previously encoded

Question 48

Type of Dyssomnias

Answer 48

1. Insomnia: inability to fall or remain asleep; a persistent problem that can stem from chronic stress, most common
2. Narcolepsy: Periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods; episodes usually last less than 5 minutes but can be extremely dangerous
3. Sleep apnea; intermittent cessation of breathing during sleep, which results in awakening after a minute or so without air; this process can repeat hundreds of times a night, and can deprive sufferers of deep sleep

Question 49

Social facilitation effect

Answer 49

This occurs when the presence of others improves our performance; this tends to occur with simple, well ingrained tasks

Question 50

McDonadization

Answer 50

Explains when principles of the fast food industry dominate other sectors of American society, which is also known as the chain mentality

Question 51

Charles Cooley

Answer 51

Posited the idea of the looking glass self, which is the idea that a person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others

Question 52

What are our physiological responses to stress?

Answer 52

Acute Stress: Increased BP and heart rate, increased respiration rate, muscle tension, decreased digestion, sleep disturbances

Chronic Stress: Chronic high blood pressure (which can lead to heart disease), damage to muscle tissue, inhibition of growth, suppression of the immune and reproductive systems, mental health issues

Question 53

Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

Answer 53

Working memory consists of four departments

1. phonological loop: allows us to repeat verbal info to help us remember
2. visuospatial sketchpad
3. episodic buffer: theorized to integrate information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time and to interface with long term memory stores.

Question 54

Cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 54

We feel tension whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs that are incompatible or when attitudes and behaviors don’t match. When this occurs, we may feel like hypocrites or feel confused as to where we stand. In order to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension, we make our views of the world match how we feel or what we’ve done

Question 55

Secularization

Answer 55

Process by which religion loses its social significance in modern societies

Question 56

Phi phenomenon

Answer 56

Describes the illusion of movement that is created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession

Question 57

Bottom up Processing

Answer 57

Starts with a information from our sensory receptors and builds up to a final product in our brain; this type of processing assumes that we start with the details and end up with a final representation in our mind

Question 58

Implicit or procedural memory vs Explicit or Declarative memory

Answer 58

Implicit refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something while Explicit involves being able to declare or voice what is known

Question 59

What determines social mobility?

Answer 59

Physical capital: money property, land, other assets

Cultural Capital: non financial characteristics evaluated by society

Social Capital: who you know, social networks

Question 60

Specificity

Answer 60

Experiment concludes there is no difference between groups

Question 61

Proactive Interference

Answer 61

Information that has already been learned interferes with the ability to learn new information

Question 62

What is government?

Answer 62

An institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a society as well as with regulating relations with other societies

Question 63

Self-efficacy

Answer 63

Our belief in our abilities, competence, and effectiveness; high self-efficacy means that we believe we can affect a situation or outcome while low self-efficacy means that we do not believe we can affect a situation or outcome (self-efficacy varies from task to task)

Question 64

Leak channels

Answer 64

Channels that are open and all the time and that simly allow ions to leak across the membrane according to their gradient.

Question 65

Monarchy

Answer 65

A representative from one family controls the gov’t and power is passed on through that family from generation to generation

Constitutional Monarchy: There is a figure head but someone else controls the government; British Monarchy

Absolute Monarchy: Queen or King controls the state; Saudi Arabia

Question 66

Latent function

Answer 66

the unintended, unforeseen consequences of an institution

Latent function: Classism, socialization, increase income disparity, increase debt, provide jobs

Question 67

Reflex

Answer 67

Direct motor response to sensory input which occurs without conscious thought. A sneosry neuron transmits an action potential to a synapse with a motor neuron inthe spinal cord which causes an action to occur

Question 68

Alertness and Arousal is controlled by?

Answer 68

Reticular Activating System in the brain

Question 69

Situation in which behaviors are more likely to influence attitude

Answer 69

1. Role playing: when we are in situations with defined roles, we are more likely to adjust our attitude to align with the behavior
2. Public declarations: declaring something publicly can influence our attitude to align with our declaration
   - as we continue to express ourselves, we become more entrenched in what we say, a habit that is even stronger for statements made publicy
   - Justification of effort: we have a tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome that we had to put more effort into achieving

when we engage in a behavior that requires some degree of effort we are more likely to shift our attitudes to align with the behavior

Question 70

Central traits

Answer 70

The general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such as intelligent, honest, shy, and anxious are considered central traits

Question 71

Selective attention

Answer 71

The process by which one input is attended to and the rest are tuned out. Necessaryy because we do not have the capacity to pay attention to everything in our environment

Question 72

Intelligence

Answer 72

Ability to learn from experience and adapt to the env’t

One general intelligence “g”

Multiple types of intelligences: Social intelligence (the ability to manage and understand people) and Emotional Intelligence (ability to monitor and discriminate emotions in order to guide thinking and action)

Two Types of Intelligence:

1. Fluid intelligence (reason quickly, abstractly)
2. Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills

Two mindsets regarding intelligence:

1. Fixed: belief that intelligence and abilities are static
2. Growth: belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort

Question 73

Religiosity includes

Answer 73

Unifying traditions, doctrine, practice, and spirituality

Question 74

External Validity

Answer 74

The extent to which the findings can be generalized to the real world

low external validity: drawing conclusion that can only be applicable in the lab and not in real world practice

Question 75

Stress

Answer 75

Anything that poses a threat or challenge to our physical or mental well being

Question 76

Cyclothymic disorder

Answer 76

similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme with symptoms not meeting criteria for either a manic or a major depressive episode

Cyclic moods including many hypomaniac episodes for at least two years

Question 77

Answer 77

Large Standard Deviation

Question 78

Emile Durkheim

Answer 78

• Considered one of the fathers of modern sociology
• Pioneered modern social research and est sociology as separate from psychology and political philosophy
• Major proponent of functionalism
• Asserted that modern societies are quite complex and require many different types of people working together to make the society function
• Individual is significant only in terms of their status, position in patterns of social relations, and associated behaviors
• Individual is significant only in terms of his/her contribution to society

Question 79

Meritocracy

Answer 79

• Higher social mobility
• More dependent on effort
• Social status based on individual merit

Question 80

Conflict Theory

Answer 80

Views society as a competition for limited resources. In society, individuals and groups compete for social, political, and material resources

• Macro level theory of society
• May be too narrow only focusing on conflict

Question 81

Stage 2 sleep

Answer 81

• Theta waves present
• Waves intermixed with two patterns: K complexes and sleep spindles

K complex has a duration of a half second and is large and slow. These occur as a single wave amongst the theta waves

Sleep spindles are bursts of waves. They have a frequency of 12-14 Hz and are moderately intense. Do not last long: only a half to one and a half seconds

No eye movement an EMG measures moderate activity

Increased relaxation in the body: decreased heart rate, respiration temperature

Question 82

Crude death rate

Answer 82

Annual number of deaths per 1,000 persons in a population

Below 10- considered low

Above 20- considered high

Question 83

Normative organization

Answer 83

Members motivated by a common cause or belief

Greenpeace, church, NPO

Question 84

Subculture

Answer 84

Groups that lives differently from but not opposed to the dominant culture

Question 85

Types of parasomnias

Answer 85

1. Somnambulism: sleep walking, tends to occur during slow wave sleep (Stage 3) usually during the first third of the night. Many children experience sleep walking and eventually grow out of it (can last from 30 secs to 30 minutes)
2. Night Terrors; usually occur during Stage 3 earlier in the night (unlike nightmares, which occur during REM sleep toward morning). A person experiencing this may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified, although none of this is recalled the next morning

Question 86

How are health and medicine defined?

Answer 86

Responsible for defining and treating illness (physical and mental) among members of a society. A society’s medical establishment should promote health, the total well being of its people

Question 87

Extinction Burst

Answer 87

Extinction is the disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced. An exitinction burst is the initial increase in the frequency and magnitude of the behavior prior to the gradual decrease and extinction of the behavior. Theis is especially likely to occur when the reinforcement is removed abruptly

Question 88

Social condition

Answer 88

Examples of social conditions include: availability of food supplies, drug use, access to quality education, unemployment

Question 89

Psychoanalytic Perspective of Personality

Answer 89

• Psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud, asserts that personality is shaped largely by the unconscious
• Freud suggested that human behavior is motivated by
  1. the libido (life instinct) which drives behaviors focused on pleasure, survival, and avoidance of pain
  2. death instinct which drives behaviors fueled by the unconscious desure to die, or hurt oneself or others

Question 90

Impression management

Answer 90

is the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others

People construct images of themselves and want others to see them in certain lights

Talking oneself up and showing off flashy status symbols to demonstrate a desired image

Question 91

Attrition

Answer 91

dropping out of study

Question 92

Rituals

Answer 92

Characterized by formalism traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance sacral symbolism and performance

Question 93

Multistability

Answer 93

Tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstably between alternative interpretations in our brain

Question 94

Gentrification

Answer 94

Renovation of urban areas in a process of urbal renewal

Often specific to the introduction of wealthier residents to the cities who then help to restore the existing infrastructure which alters the regions demographics and economics

Question 95

Sapir Whorf Hypothesis

Answer 95

Also known as the principle of linguistic relativity, this hypothesis suggests that language strongly influences thought; the words we use and how we use them define and limit our cognitive abilities

Question 96

polygamy

Answer 96

Many partners

Question 97

Discrimination

Answer 97

The opposite of generalization, and occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli; thus, the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli. If the dogs do not salivate at the sound of a buzzer or a horn, they have differentiated those stimuli from the sound of a bell

Question 98

Rudimentary movements

Answer 98

• First voluntary movement performed by a child
• Occur in very predictable stages (birth-age 2)
• Include: rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, walking
• Primarily dictated by genetics

Question 99

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Answer 99

Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest

Cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

Question 100

What is the difference between physical dependence and psychological dependence?

Answer 100

Psychological Dependence; occurs when a drug becomes central to a person’s thoughts, emotions, and activities. It can be demonstrated by a strong urge to use the drug, despite being aware of its harmful effects. While not all drugs are considered capable of leading to physical dependence, it is possible for any drug to lead to psychological dependence

Physical dependence to a drug can be demonstrated by the presence of withdrawal symptoms when the drug is not consumed. That is, the person depends on the drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms and to function normally. Physical dependence on a drug often follows heavy daily use over several weeks or longer

Question 101

Hinduism

Answer 101

• Polytheistic religion
• 14%
• Major deities: Shiva and Vishnu
• belief in reincarnation or rebirth after death

Question 102

Probability Distribution

Answer 102

Function that assigns a probability of falling within a given range on the x axis

Question 103

Optimism bias

Answer 103

When we believe that bad things happen to other people, but not to ourselves

You need to sign up for health insurance but you keep putting it off because you know you are young and healthy

You think I have little risk of catastrophic injury

Question 104

Everett Lee

Answer 104

• Popular theorist
• Push factors: those things that are unattractive about an area and push people to leave; they are often economic, political, or religious in form (active oppression of social groups, prejudice, discrimination, natural disasters, destructive violence)
• Pull factors: those things that are attractive about an area and “pull” poeple there; positive opportunities for economic, political, or religious freedom and success

Interaction between push and pull factors contributes to the rate of migration

Question 105

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Dev’t

Answer 105

Question 106

Actor/observer bias

Answer 106

When we attribute our own actions to the situation

Ex: You have been waiting 20 minutes to see the doctor, and get angry with the receptionist for having to wait

You think “I have a legitimate reason to be angry”

Question 107

Accessibility of Healthcare

Answer 107

The ability for someone to obtain existing resources across the US (whether or not healthcare resources can be obtained by someone who needs these resources)

Not having health insurance might affect accessibility

Other factors: distance to clinic, translators in hospital, home bound unable to get to doctor

Question 108

Fundementalism

Answer 108

Second response to modern societies in which there is strong attachment to religious beliefs and practices

Question 109

Midbrain

Answer 109

Integration of visual and auditory information; visual and auditory reflexes; wakefulness and consciousness; coordinates information on posture and muscle tone

Question 110

George Herbert Mead

Answer 110

• One of the founders of social psychology
• Founded the symbolic interactionism school of thought
• Said that the self is developed through three social activities: language, play, and games
• Cames up with three sense of self
  1. The generalized other is an organized and generalized attitude of a social group- collective meaning a society has (beauty standards of society)
  2. Me is the social self, gained through interaction with others, the internalized attitude of others (your internalized view “I don’t fit society standards. I am ugly because I don’t fit.”
  3. I is the response to the “me” or the person’s individuality (“It’s ok that I don’t look like society’s standard’s.”)
• Thinking is the internalized dialogue between the “I” and “me”

Not born with a me, it’s developed and gained through interaction with others to understand it

Question 111

Totalitarianism

Answer 111

A political system under which the government maintains tight control over nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives

Question 112

What does adrenal gland release?

Answer 112

Norepinephrine and epinephrine

Question 113

Feature Detection Theory

Answer 113

Explains that certain parts of the brain are activated for specific visual stimuli

Feature detector neurons only respond to specific features of a visual stimulus such as its shape, angle, or motion. The visual cortex passes sensory information to the part of the brain responsible for the perception of that object

Visual perception results from the interaction of numerous specialized neural systems, each of which performs a specific simple task

Question 114

Manic episode

Answer 114

• For at least one week, a person has experienced an abnormal euphoric unrestrained or irritable mood
• Increase in goal-directed activity with increased energy and productivity

-

Question 115

Spotlight model

Answer 115

Spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual’s visual field. It is important to note that this beam describes the movement of attention, not the movement of the eyes

Question 116

Parkinson’s disease

Answer 116

• Caused primarily by abnormally low dopamine levels
• Dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia die off, making it harder to control movements
• Dopamine is involved in the sending of messages to areas of the brain that control coordination and movement
• Dopamine levels progressively drop in patients with the disease, so their symptoms gradually become more severe
• Abnormal aggregates of protein called Lewy bodies develop inside neurons

Question 117

Attitude

Answer 117

Our evaluation, on a scale from positive to negative, of other people, events, etc; attitudes are formed from our past and present experiences, are measurable and mutable, and have an important impact on our behaviors and emotions

3 components: affect, behavior, cognition

Question 118

In which of the following situations would self-affirmation be the LEAST helpful?

A. When receiving threatening health information about your health habits

B. Upon recognizing that others hold a stereotype that applies to you

C. While getting rejected by a significant other who tells you that you are annoying

D. While getting dumped by a significant other who has to move to a different country for work

Answer 118

Self-affirmation is most useful when it allows individuals to preserve their sense of self-worth after receiving information that is a threat to self-integrity. Getting dumped because a significant other has to move away does not threaten one’s self-integrity because the significant other ended the relationship due to external circumstances, not due to anything specific to the individual; therefore, this would be the least likely situation to benefit from self-affirmation (choice D is correct). Receiving threatening health information regarding your health habits does threaten self-integrity, so self-affirmation would be helpful in this scenario (choice A is wrong). Recognizing the others hold a stereotype about you also threatens self-integrity, so self-affirmation would be helpful (choice B is wrong). Rejection by a significant other because he/she tells you that you are annoying also threatens self-integrity, so self-affirmation would be helpful (choice C is wrong).

Question 119

Insight learning

Answer 119

A process in which the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in what might be described as a “flash of insight”

Question 120

Retinal Disparity

Answer 120

Binocular Cue

The brain compares the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance; the greater the difference between the two images, the shorter the distance

Question 121

Phenylketonuria

Answer 121

• PKU is an inherited disorder, resulting from a genetic mutation that renders the body unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine
• Left untreated in infants, it can result in physical, intellectual, and social disabilities, seizures, and other severe medical problems
• If treated, those with the genetic mutation causing PKU are completely normal
• Good example of a genetic condition that can have a significant impact on inidividual under certain environmental conditiona nd no impact under different environmental conditions

Question 122

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Answer 122

Not only do language and thought overlap, but cognition and perception are determined by the language one speaks

Question 123

Extinction

Answer 123

Occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stop occurring. After the dogs have been conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell, if the sound is presented to the dogs over and over wihtout being paired with the food, then after some period of timethe dogs will eventually stop salivating at the sound of the bell

Question 124

Major focus of social constructionists

Answer 124

The study of how individuals and groups participate in the construction of society and social reality. Social construction is a dynamic, ongoing process, which must be maintained, reaffirmed, and passed along to future generations

Question 125

Studies show that, at the primary school level, female students are called on less frequently in math and science classes than are male students, even by female teachers. Furthermore, teachers are almost always completely unaware that they are doing this. The concept that best accounts for this is:

a) institutional discrimination.
b) educational segregation.
c) ageism.
d) hidden curriculum.

Answer 125

d

Question 126

Fad

Answer 126

• Collective behavior
• AKa a craze in which something
  1. ) experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputations
  2. ) remains popular among a large population for a brief period
  3. ) experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation

Driven through peer pressure and social media

OFten fades

Question 127

Reinforcement

Answer 127

Anything that will increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again

Question 128

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development

Answer 128

Infacy: Trust vs mistrust

Early Childhood (1-3): Autonomy vs Shame

Preschool age (3-5): Initiative vs Guilt

School age (5-12): Industry vs Inferiority

Adolescence (12-18): Identity vs Role confusion

Young Adulthood (18-40): Intimacy vs Isolation

MIddle Adulthood (40-65): Generativity vs Stagnation

Later life (65+): integrity vs Despair

Question 129

Depressive Disorder

Answer 129

• Sad, empty, and/or irritiable mood
• Not related to normal grief

Question 130

Dishabituation

Answer 130

Occurs after an organism has become habituated to the stimulus, then the stimulus is removed. The person is no longer accustomed to the stimulus. If the stimulus is presented again, the person will react to it as if it was a new stimulus

Question 131

Multi Store Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Answer 131

Question 132

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 132

A theory that suggests that individuals assign rewards (benefits) and punishments (costs) to interactions and prefer those with the greatest personal benefit

Behavior (Profits) = Rewards of the interaction - Costs of the interaction

Deal with individual interaction -> micro level theory

Question 133

Photoreceptors

Answer 133

rods and cones synapse on bipolar cell. both types release glutamate onto bipolar cells inhibiting them from firing. Upon hyperpolarization, photoreceptors stop releasing glutamate so bipolar cell depolarizes and then ganglion cell depolarizes and action potential send along ganglion cell to make up optic nerve

Question 134

Signal Detection Theory

Answer 134

Proposes a method for quantifying a person’s ability to detect a given stimulus amidst other, non -important stimuli (termed noise)

Question 135

Top down processing

Answer 135

Starts with a larger concept or idea and works down to the details; this type of processing assumes that we start with an idea about the final representation, and work down to the sensory details in our mind

Question 136

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Answer 136

Strong genetic component (twin concordance is high)

Many environmental factors thought to play a role: pesticides, plastics, metals, air pollution, drugs taken by mother while pregnant

-Early diagnosis and treatment intervention has been demonstrated to significantly improve behavioral deficits for children with ASD; the earlier the better

Question 137

Religiosity

Answer 137

Refers to the extent of influence of religion in a person’s life

Question 138

Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

Answer 138

Characteristics: Involve delusions, hallucinations, and/or disorganized speech; may involve negative symptoms

Specific Disorders: Delusional Disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder, Schizophreniform Disorder, Schizophrenia, and Schizoaffective DIsorder

Question 139

Which of the following is NOT a right or an obligation of a sick person, according to sick role theory?

A. The sick person should seek treatment and cooperate with the medical professional.

B. The sick person is exempt from normal social roles.

C. The sick person should try to get well.

D. The sick person is responsible for not getting anyone else sick.

I DON’T KNOW YET

Answer 139

D

Question 140

Genital

Answer 140

12+ yrs

Erogenous: sexual interests mature

Adult fixation: frigidity, impotence, difficulty in intimate relationships

Question 141

Which of the following is not one of the factors we use when determining whether to attribute another individual’s behavior to internal or external causes?

Frequency

Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

Answer 141

frequency

Question 142

Observational learning

Answer 142

A process in which learning occurs through the observation of another’s behavior

Question 143

Social facilitation

Answer 143

People tend to perform simple well learned tasks better when other people are present. Only holds true for simple or practiced tasks

Question 144

Judaism

Answer 144

• Monotheistic
• God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah
• Ten commandments followed –> believe God would bring paradise to Earth
  0. 22%

Question 145

Displacement

Answer 145

Occurs in short term memory in the rehearsal buffer when new (often related) information is substituted for the actual information

Question 146

Cultural lag

Answer 146

Explains the fact that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations; social problems and conflicts are cuased by this lag

Question 147

what factors influence motivation

Answer 147

instincts

drives: urges originating from a physiological discomfort (hunger)
needs: basic biological needs and also higher level needs (love and belonging)

arousal

Question 148

Dopamine REward Pthway

Answer 148

The reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain and connect to the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)

Dopamine is released in response to rewarding stimuli and mediates the effects of reinforcement

Natural rewards such as primary reinforcers activate this pathway and lead to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

Many addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and thus reinforce drug use

Question 149

Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality

Answer 149

Personality is a result of reciprocal interactions among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors (nature and nurture)

Albert Bandura

• THis personality theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes
• The behavioral component includes patterns of behavior learned through clalssical and operant conditioning, as well as observational learning
• The cognitive component includes the mental process-es involved in observational learning as well as conscious cognitive processes such as self-efficacy beliefs (beliefs about one’s own abilities)
• The environmental component includes situational influences such as opportunities, rewards, and punishments

Question 150

Direct effects Hypothesis

Answer 150

Social support provides better health and wellness benefits

Healthier people are better able to manage stress

Question 151

Social model of disease

Answer 151

Emphasizes the effect of one’s social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors

• Takes into consideration the psychological, social, and cultural factors that influence health
• Postulates that social pressures can create the conditions for health and illness

Question 152

Collective behavior

Answer 152

Social norms for the situation are absent or unclear

More short lived and less conventional values influence the group’s behavior and guidelines for membership

Examples do not reflect the existing social structure but are spontaneous situations in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social norms

There is a loss of the individual and independent moral judgment in exchange for a sense of the group

Question 153

Dyssomnias

Answer 153

Abnormalities in the amount quality or timing of sleep

Question 154

Repolarization

Answer 154

Voltage gated sodium channels inactivate very quickly. Voltage gated potassium channels open more slowly and stay open longer in response to depolarization.

Question 155

Autism

Answer 155

Range of complex neurodevelopmental disordrs, characterized by social impairments, communication difficulties, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior

-Experts estimate 1/88 children age 8 will have an ASD, males 4x more likely

Question 156

Caste System

Answer 156

• Lower social mobility
• Less dependent on effort
• Social status defined by birth
• Ex: slavery, HIndu caste system

Question 157

Stages of acquiring language

Answer 157

1. Immersion in social speech.
2. Egocentric speech where children begin talking to themselvess experimenting with language
3. Inner speech a child’s understanding of grammar and the relationshp between words and objects is sufficiently advanced to allow him to think words without mouthing them

Question 158

General adaptation syndrom

Answer 158

Exposure to stressful stimuli (alarm) –> Our physiology tries to cope with the stressor (resistance) –> physiological break down (exhaustion)

Question 159

Emotion

Answer 159

Physiological (or bodily) component of emotion includes our physiological, arousal, or an excitation of our body’s internal state.

Examples: sweating, increased heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate

Sympathetic Stress response: epinephrine and norepinephrine

Epinephrine: peptide hormone (tyrosine)

Question 160

Generalization

Answer 160

Occurs when stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus eilicits the conditioned response

Question 161

Excitatory vs INhibitory

Answer 161

Neurotransmitter opens a channel that depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane (excitatory)

Making the postsynaptic membrane potential more negative than the resting potential or hyperpolarized.(inhibitory)

Question 162

When forming impression what information do we use?

Answer 162

Physical cues: how someone looks influences our impression of them

Salience: we tend to focus on the most obvious cues and ignore or downplay less obvious ones

Social categorization: age, race, gender we form our impressions base don the social roles and norms for these categorizations

Other biases: Halo effect (our overall impression of someone impacts our assumptions about that person’s character)

Question 163

Catastrophes

Answer 163

Unpredictable, large scale events that include natural disasters and wartime events and affect many people

Question 164

Escape

Answer 164

Individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engagin in a particular behavior

Ex: child does not want to eat her vegetables so she throws a temper tantrum

Question 165

Command economies

Answer 165

AKA planned economies

• Economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (state owned)
• Socialism and Communism

Question 166

Socioeconomic status

Answer 166

power prestige property

Question 167

Prevalence

Answer 167

Number of percentage of people diagnosed with a disease or condition during the time window specified

Question 168

Universal emotions

Answer 168

Expressed by all humans across as cultures

Question 169

Social movement

Answer 169

Group action that attempts to promote, resist, or undo a social change

(Feminist movement, social hygiene, mental hygiene)

Question 171

Short term memory vs Working memory

Answer 171

Short term is strongly correlated with hippocampus and is where new information sought to be rememered temporarily resides and is then encoded to long term memory or forgotten

Working memory which is strongly correlated with the prefrontal cortex is a storage bin to hold memories that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve a problem (area of a triangle for math class)

Question 172

Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve

Answer 172

A graphical plot tht demonstrates the hit rate vs the false alarm rate to graphicallhy demonstrate a reciever’s accuracy

Question 173

False Consciousness

Answer 173

According to Marx, it’s a lack of such awareness. This occurs when members of a subordinate class see themselves as individuals instead of as an exploited group

Question 174

Class Consciousness

Answer 174

Karl Marx defined class consciousness as a social condition in which members of a subordinate social class are actively aware of themselves as a group who is being exploited by the wealthy

Question 175

Rights and obligations of sick role theory

Answer 175

RIght: THe sick person is exempt from normal social roles

Right: The sick person is not responsible for their condition

Obligation: The sick person should try to get well

Obligation: The sick person should seek treatment and cooperate with the meidcal professional

Question 176

As a social institution, what is religion

Answer 176

A unified system of beliefs and practices shared by a group of believers pertaining to the supernatural and to norms about the right way to behave; sociologists treat religion as a social rather than supernatural phenomenon

Question 177

Amygdala

Answer 177

Serves as the conductor of the orchestra of our emotional experiences

Question 178

Residential Segregation

Answer 178

The physical separation of groups into different areas/neighborhoods; groups are typically separated along the lines of race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, etc.

Question 179

Positives of Medicalization

Answer 179

1. Brings attention to problems

2, New breakthroughs

3. Better research

Question 180

Utilitarian Organization

Answer 180

Members motivated by some incentive or reward

Members get paid for their efforts

Corporation

Question 181

Naom Chomsky

Answer 181

Pointed out flaws with Skinner’s model; Chomsky suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood (universal grammar).

Question 183

Population

Answer 183

All of the potential people a study is trying to understand. A value taken from a population is called a population parameter

Question 184

Variable interval

Answer 184

provides reinforcement after an inconistent period of time

Question 185

Dynamic Equilibrium

Answer 185

Occurs when multiple interdependent parts in a society work together toward societal stability

-Healthy societies would be able to achieve this equilibrium

Question 186

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Assumed Problem:

Therapy Goals:

Methods and Examples:

Answer 186

Assumed Problem: Maladaptive Behaviors and/or self-defeating thoughts

Therapy Goals: Extinction of undesired thoughts/behaviors, learning adaptive thoughts/behaviors, healthier thinking and self-talk

Methods and Examples: Reconditioning, desensitization

Question 187

Source Monitoring Errors

Answer 187

Misidentifying the origins of our knowledge

Question 188

Difference threshold

Answer 188

The minimum difference between two stimuli we can detect 50% of the time

Question 190

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 190

Question 191

Self-Schema

Answer 191

The beliefs and ideas we have about ourselves; used to guide and organize the processing of information that is relevant to ourselves

These play into our self-concept

Question 192

Which of the following is not a social identity?

Buddhist

Schizophrenic

Senior citizen

Occasional vegetarian

Answer 192

Occasional vegetarian (personal identity which consists of all of the personal attributes that one finds important to their own identity)

Socially defined attributes include: age, religion, mental illness

Question 193

Specialized movement

Answer 193

Children learn to combine the fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks

1. Transitional stage:Combination of movements occur
2. Application substage: conscious decisions to apply these skills to specific types of activity

Question 194

Incidence rate

Answer 194

Number of new cases of a disease or condition that began during the time window specified per number of individuals in a population

Question 195

Agents of socialization

Answer 195

Family, school, peers, workplace, religion/government, and mass media/technology

Question 196

Reciprocal determinism

Answer 196

THe interaction between a person’s behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors, and environment

1. People choose their env’t which shapes them (alma mater)
2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their job env’t (ppl prone to depression are more likely to view their job as pointless)
3. Person’s personality influences the situation to which she then reacts (If you call customer service furiously you are more likely to get a defensive response on the phone)

Question 197

Feral children experienced which form of child abuse?

A. Emotional abuse

B. Physical abuse

C. Sexual abuse

D. Neglect

Answer 197

Feral children are those deprived of social processes due to neglect or abandonment (choice D is correct). These children are raised without human interaction, which results in terrible consequences; thus, studies of feral children have contributed to much of our understanding of the importance of socialization. Emotional abuse, physical abuse, and sexual abuse would require human contact, and while it is possible for these forms of abuse to have occurred prior to their being abandoned, the question does not provide details to support this assumption (choices A, B, and C are wrong).

Question 198

Behavioral therapy

Answer 198

Uses conditioning to shape a client’s behavior in teh desired direction. Using the ABC model, therapist performs a functional assessment to determine the antecedents (A) and consequences (C) of the behavior (B).. THerapy then proceeds by changing antecedents and consequences using the least aversive means possible

Question 199

Symbols

Answer 199

Cultural representations of reality

Question 200

Top Down Processing

Answer 200

Start with a larger concept or idea and works down to the details; this type of processing assumes that we start with an idea about the final representation (which is influenced by our knowledge, experiences, and expectations), and work down to the sensory details in our mind

Oh this cup says “I hate mondays” it must be my coffee cup

Question 201

Anomie

Answer 201

Concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic

State of normlessness

Emile Durkheim used for explanation of difference in suicide rates between Catholics and Protestants

Anomie is characteristic of societies in which social cohesion is less pronounced and individualism predominates

Question 202

Vicarious emotions

Answer 202

When observing emotional responses in others, research suggests the same areas of our brain are activated (while viewing the disgus of others, we activate a region of our brain, the insula, that is normally activated while we experience disgust ourselves)

Also thought to be critical in our experience of empathy

Question 203

Availability Heuristic

Answer 203

Occurs when we rely on immediate examples that come to mind when trying to make a decision or judgment. When you overestimate the probability and likelihood of something happening because you can think of examples of it happening, you’ve committed this error

Question 204

Rationalist

Answer 204

Language is a human ability prewired into the brain so the hodl that certain ideas and capabilities cannot come from experience and must be innate

Question 205

Forgetting

Answer 205

Question 206

Racism

Answer 206

Discriminate based on race or hold that one race is inferior to another

Question 207

Mary AInsworth

Answer 207

Conducted a series of experiments called the “strange situation experiments” where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how the infacts would react

These studies suggested that attachment styles vary among infants:

Question 208

Tonic neck reflex

Answer 208

In response to its head being turned, baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow

Reflex lasts about 6 to 7 months

Question 209

Islam

Answer 209

• Second largest religion
• Monotheistic
• Prophets, afterlife, judgement day
• 20-25%

Question 210

Welfare capitalism

Answer 210

A system that features a marked-based economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens

Question 211

Somatic PNS anatomy

Answer 211

All somatic motor neurons innervate sksletal muscle cells and use ACh

They have a long dendrite extending from a sensory receptor toward the soma which is located just outside the CNS in a dorsal root ganglion which is within the vertebral column but outside the meninges

Question 212

Signal detection theory

Answer 212

Attempts to predict how and whensomeone will detect the presence of a sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the back ground

4 possible outcomes:

• hit (signal present and detected)
• miss (signal present but not detected)
• false alarm (signal no present but thought it was)
• correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)

Question 213

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Answer 213

A person alternates among two or more distinct personality states only one of which interacts with other people at a given time

Condition may be experienced as a “possession by another personality or identity as it involves amnesia”

Question 214

Autocratic governments

Answer 214

Controlled by a single person or a selective small group with absolute decision making power

Include dictatorships (those ruled by one person) and fascist gov’ts

Question 215

Categories in DSM-5

Question 216

In operant condiditioning, what is shaping?

Answer 216

The rewarding of successive approximation; most organisms don’t automatically perform the exact desired behavior, so providing reinforcements (or punishments) for intermediate behaviors can eventually lead to the final desired behavior

Question 217

Dyad

Answer 217

Contains two members

Often more intense and intimate than in larger groups

active communication from both to be stable

Question 218

Gestalt psychology

Answer 218

Emphasizes our tendency to organize informaiton into a meaningful whole; in terms of perception, our mind tends to influence what we perceive in predictable ways

1. law of Proximity
2. law of similarity
3. law of continuity
4. law of connectedness
5. law of closure

Question 219

Avoidance

Answer 219

Occurs when a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented

Ex: child notices mom cooking vegetables so fakes an illness

Question 222

Socialization

Answer 222

Dynamic, ongoing process by which an individual internalizes the values, beliefs, and norms of their society and learns to function as a member of the society. Socialization helps to explain how social constructs are maintained, reaffirmed, and passed along to future generations

Question 223

Reject null hypothesis

Answer 223

When you conclude that the treatment and control groups are sampled from different populations

Question 224

Authoritarianism

Answer 224

A political system that does not allow citizens to participate in government; China

Question 225

Ascribed status

Answer 225

One assigned to you by society regardless of your effort

Involuntarily or by birth

Race and gender

Question 226

Stereotypes

Answer 226

oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics (race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, disability)

Question 227

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Answer 227

Obsessions (thoughts or urges) and/or Compulsions (repetitive behaviors)

• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
• Body DYsmorphic Disorder
• Hoarding Disorder
• Trichotillomania (Hair pulling Disorder)

Question 228

Physical attractiveness stereotype

Answer 228

Specific type of halo effect

People tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractice

Question 229

Assimilation vs Amalgamation

Answer 229

Assimilation: process in which individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture

A + B + C –> A

Amalgamation occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

A + B + C –> D

Question 230

Groupthink

Answer 230

Occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity results in members attempting to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints; this may lead to irrational or dysfunctional decision making

Question 231

Crude birth rate

Answer 231

is the annual number of live births per 1,000 people in a given population as opposed to specifically women of childbearing age

Question 232

Latent learning

Answer 232

A process in which learning is occurring but is not immediately obvious; later, when needed, the learning demonstrates itself

Question 233

Kitty Genovese

Answer 233

Initiated research into the bystander effect. On March 13, 1964 Genovese 28 was attacked and stabbed to death. Although neighbors heard her screams and a few even saw part of the attack, most did nothing in response

Question 234

Modeling

Answer 234

An observer sees the behavior being performed by another person. Later, with the model in mind, the observer imitates the behavior she or he observed

Question 235

Polysomnography

Answer 235

A multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep. PSG includes electroencephalogram (EEG) which measure of electrical impulses in the brain, Electromyogram (EMG) measure of skeletal muscle movements, electrooculogram (EOG) measure of eye movement

Question 236

Impression management

Answer 236

Also known as self-presentation, this is the conscious or unconscious process whereby we attempt to manage our own image by influencing the perceptions of others

Question 237

Material objects

Answer 237

Consists of the concrete, visible parts of a culture such as food, clothing, cars. weapons, and buildings

Question 238

How is emotion adaptive?

Answer 238

Enhances survival by prompting quick decisions

Promotes group cohesion and solidarity

Helps in decision making on a daily basis

Question 239

Defense mechanisms

Answer 239

Repression, denial, reaction formation (expressing the opposite of what one really feels), projection, displacement, rationalization, regression, sublimation (channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art)

Question 240

Mirror neurons

Answer 240

Have been identiifed in various parts of the human brain including the premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior parietal cortex

Question 241

Storage

Answer 241

Retaining information in short-term or long-term memory (stage 2)

Question 242

Urbanization

Answer 242

A decrease in the proportion of the population living in rural ares and an increase in the proportion of the population living in urban areas

Question 243

Social support

Answer 243

The perception or reality that one is cared for and is a member of a supportive social network. support can be emotional, tangible, informational, or companionable

Question 244

The sodium potassium pump

Answer 244

Pumps 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell with hydrolysis of one ATP molecule. The result is a sodium gradient with high K inside the cell

Question 245

Temporal summation

Answer 245

Presynaptic neuron fires action potential so rapidly that the excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory ones pile up on top of each other. The ESPs will pile on top of each other but ISPs will hypoerpolarize moving further and further away fromthreshold

Question 246

Answer 246

Small Standard Deviation

Question 247

Insecurely attached infants

Answer 247

will not explore their surroundings while their mother is present; when the mother leaves they will cry loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indifference to her departure and return

1. Ambivalen attachment: Toddler cries loudly but remains upset even after return. may be inconsolable. Toddler may cling to the mother and hit her or push away from her
2. Avoidant attachment: Toddler demonstrates seeming indifference to mother’s departure and return

While behavioral signs indicate indifference, physiological data show that the toddler is in fact experiencing stress

Question 248

Locus of control

Answer 248

Our belief in whether or not we can influence the events that impact us; an internal locus of control means that we believe we have control over these events while an external locus of control means that we do not believe we have control

Question 249

Deviance

Answer 249

A violation of society’s standards of conduct or expectations

Deviant behavior often violates social norms, both formal and informal. Deviants reject the goals of a society, or the accepted means of obtaining these goals or both

Question 250

Role strain

Answer 250

Occurs when you face conflicting expectations for a single role

Question 251

Major characteristics of autism

Answer 251

• Impaired social development
• Impaired communication
• repetitive behavior

Question 252

Acute Stress/Chronic Stres

Answer 252

Acute: Sympathetic Stress Response, Increased BP, heart rate breathing, epi and NE, adaptive

Chronic: Decreased immune function, inflammation, cardiac dysfunction, cortisol, maladaptive

Question 253

Fundamental movement

Answer 253

• Occurs from age 2 to age 7
• Child is learning to manipulate body through actions such as running, jumping, catching
• Highly influenced by environment
• Movements may start out as uncoordinated but become more refined and efficient

Question 254

Which of the following is not a key element of persuasion?

Source characteristics

Target characteristics

Message characteristics

Proximity characteristics

Answer 254

Proximity characteristics are not a key element of persuasion. The three key elements to persuasion are: (1) the message characteristics, including the features of the message itself, such as the logic and key points in the argument, the length of the argument, and its grammatical complexity; (2) the source characteristics, including the characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message, such as expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness; and (3) the target characteristics, including the characteristics of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, and other personal factors.

Question 255

Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 255

Theory asserts that people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them, and these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation

Central theme is that human life is lived in the symbolic domain

Micro level theory meaning that it focuses on everyday social interactions between individuals

Question 256

Three factors that determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes

Answer 256

1. Distinctiveness: the extent to which the individual behaves in the same way in similar situations

Ask: Is X’s behavior in this situation different from X’s behavior in other situations?

High: Yes,X does not behave like this in most other situations

Low: No, X does not behave like this in most other situations

2. Consensus: the extent to which the individual is behaving similarly to other individuals

Ask: Is X’s behavior similar to everyone else’s behavior

High: most other people are behaving like this

Low: no one else is behaving like this

3. Consistency: the extent to which the individual’s behavior is similar every time the situation occurs

Ask: does X usually behave like this when the situation occurs

Question 257

Babinkski reflex

Answer 257

In response to the sole of the foot being stroked, the baby’s big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toe fans out

Question 258

Bystander effect

Answer 258

Predicts that we are less likely to help a victim when other people are present (we assume- and everyone else assumes- that someone else will help, so no one ends up doing anything) Everyone feels a diffusion of responsibility

Question 259

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Answer 259

A person’s feelings and behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the person’s thoughts about those events. Each person thus lives by self-created, subjective beliefs about themself and the world and these beliefs color the person’s interpretations of events. Many of these beliefs are formed during childhood and are often unconscious. Goal of therapy is to help the client become aware of these and substitute rational or accurate beliefs and thoughts, which will lead to more functional feelings and behaviors

Question 260

Situations in which attitude better predicts behavior

Answer 260

1. Social influences are reduced:
   - attitudes are more internal while behaviors are more external and therefore more suscpetible to social influences
2. general patterns of behavior, not specific behaviors are observed

our attitudes are better at predicting overall decision making rather than specific behaviors.

Question 261

Self-serving bias

Answer 261

When we attribute our own successes to ourselves, but our failures to others

You get an awesome score on the psych but awful score on the physical science section of the MCAT for psych you think its because you worked hard but for physics you say the teacher didn’t teach me anything

Question 262

Gestalt Laws of Grouping

Answer 262

1. Law of proximity: suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together. Nearby objects tend to be perceived as a unit or group
2. Law of similarity suggests that things that are similar tend to appear grouped together
3. The law of continuity suggests that points we perceive the smooth continuous lines and forms rather than disadjoined one. we are more likely to see two overlapped circles with the middle colored in than two black semicircular lines and a red football
4. Law of closure: we will perceive things as complete a logical entity because our brains will fill in the gaps in the information
5. Gestalt law of common faith predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchony are perceived as a unit
6. Law of connectedness predicts that things that are joined or linked are perceived as connected

Question 263

Intersectionality

Answer 263

The study of the intersections between various systems of oppression or discrimination; this theory suggests that various sociological concepts (like race, class, sexual orientation, etc.) interact on multiple (and often simultaneous) levels, contributing to systematic injusitce and social inequality

Question 264

Retroactive Interference

Answer 264

New information that has been learned makes it more difficult to retrieve older information

Question 265

Semantic and Episodic Memory

Answer 265

Semantic memory is memory for factual information (capital of england) while episodic is autobiographical memory for information of personal importance such as the situation surrounding a first kiss

Question 266

Replacement level fertility

Answer 266

is the number of offspring that must be produced in order to replace people who have died in a given population

Question 267

Variable ratio

Answer 267

Provides reinforcement after unpredictable number of behaviors

Best for maintaining learned behavior

Question 268

IN operant conditioning, what are superstitious behaviors?

Answer 268

Behaviors that actually have no impact on the reinforcement/punishment but have been associated with receiving the reinforcement or avoiding the punishment anyway

Question 269

Robert Merton’s Structural Strain Theory

Answer 269

Deviance is the result of experienced strain either individual or structural. Modern societies have shared perceptions of the ideal life. Anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural or institutionalized means of obtaining these goals. There is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure

Question 270

Thomas Robert Malthus

Answer 270

Population is the result of available resources for sustenance sucha s farmland

The possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase

The rules of nature make it impossible for populationto increase unchecked without serious distress due to insufficient resources

Positive checks: raise the death rate (disease, hunger, war)

Preventative: lower the birth rate, like abstinence, birth control

Question 271

Confidence Interval

Answer 271

The probability that given a sample statistic (usually the mean), the corresponding population parameter falls within a certain range of the sample mean

Question 272

Monocular cues

Relative size

Answer 272

depend on information that is available to either eye alone and are important for judging distances of objects that are far from us since the retinal disparity is only slight

Retinal size: if objects are assumes to be same size, the one that casts the smaller image on retina appears more distant

Interposition: If one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer

Relative Clarity: We perceive hazy objects as being more distant than sharp, clear objects

Texture gradient: Change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance

Relative height: We perceive objects that are higher in visual field as as farther away

Relative motion: stable objects appear to move as well

Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases

Linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases

Light and shadwo: closer objects reflect more light than distant objects

Question 273

Rational Choice Theory

Answer 273

A theory that suggests that individuals make decisions by comparing the costs and benefits of various courses of action; we try to maximize benefits and reduce costs

-Individuals must anticipate the outcomes of alternative courses of action and calculate the outcome that will be best for them. Rational individuals choose the alternative that is likely to give them the greatest satisfaction

Question 274

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 274

Occurs when we estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds. Our prototype is what we think is th emost relative or typical example of a particular event or object

Question 275

Sect

Answer 275

Religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society

May withdraw from society to practice their belief and be fairly exclusive

Mormon and Ammish Communities

Question 276

Cognition

Answer 276

How we process information; it includes receiving and transforming information, storing information, recalling information, and all of the thoughts and processes that are involved with language, thinking, problem solving, decision making, etc

Question 278

Trait Perspective on Personality

Answer 278

Personality is a result of traits, which are habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that are relatively stable over time

Question 279

Game theory

Answer 279

used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population

Question 280

Mortality vs Morbidity

Answer 280

Mortality: death rate in a population

Morbidity: The nature and extent of disease in a population

Question 281

Macro sociology

Answer 281

• Society as a whole
• Looks at large scale social structures and how these affect groups/individuals
• Premise: Positions within these social structures (roles, institutions) determine human behavior

Ex: How does the healthcare system contribute to inequality in society?

Lower socioeconomic neighborhoods have less hospitals

Question 282

Kohlberg Moral Identity Development

Answer 282

Question 283

Howard Gardner

Answer 283

Put forth a theory on multiple intelligences, which breaks intelligence down into 8 different modalities: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, interpersonal

Question 284

Opsin

Answer 284

protein bound to one molecule and contains one molecule of retinal which is derived from Vitamin A. In the dark, when rods and cones are resting, retinal has several trans bonds and one cis double bond. In this conformation, retinal and opsin keep sodium channel open so cell is depolarized. Upon absorbing photon, retinal converted to all trans form which closes sodium channel and cell hyperpolarizes

Question 285

Null hypothesis

Answer 285

Predicts that there is no difference between the treatment group and the placebo. This means that both samples were taken from the same population and any differences between the two can be attributed to chance.

Question 286

According to Max Weber, these are characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

Answer 286

• Hierarchical structure
• Division of labor
• Written Rules and expectations
• Officials hired and promoted based on technical competence/expertise
• Neutrality/impersonality

Question 287

James lange

Answer 287

Stimulus -> Physiological response -> emotion

Question 288

Teacher expectancy theory

Answer 288

Teachers tend to quickly form expectations of individual students and once they have formed these expectations, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind

Question 289

Depressive Disorders

Answer 289

Sad, empty and or irritable mood

Not related to normal grief

Specific Disorders: Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder

Question 290

Spatial summation

Answer 290

The IPSPs from all of the synapses and EPSPs are summed in a given moment and the total can cause the membrane to reach the threshold voltage

Question 291

Personal identity

Answer 291

Consists of all the personal attributes that you consider integral to the description of who you are

Question 292

Emergence

Answer 292

When attempting to identify an object we first identify its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is. Only after the whole emerges do we start to identify the parts that make up the whole

Dog first then the parts of the dog come to attention

Question 293

Vertical mobility

Answer 293

Involves moving up or down in social stratification

Question 294

Divisions of the PNS

Answer 294

Somatic: portion concerned with conscious sensation and deliberate voluntary movement of skeletal muscle

Autonomic: concerned with digestion, metabolism, circulation, perspiration, other involuntary processes

Both include afferent and efferent

Autonomic has efferent subdivision (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

Question 295

Chemoreceptors

Answer 295

Olfactory: detect chemicals and allow us to smell things

Gustatory: taste buds

Question 296

Conscientiousness

Answer 296

HIgh: Values competence and order, manages time well, strives to achieve

Low: disorganized, may not value status, can be irresponsible

Question 297

Oligodendrocytes vs Schwann Cells

Answer 297

O: CNS

S: PNS

Both form myelin

Question 298

The Big 5/ Personality

Answer 298

1. Openness to Experience

2 Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism

Question 299

Pheromones

Answer 299

Chemical signals that cause a social response in members of the same species; important means of communicating information

Question 300

Folkways

Answer 300

Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior

Ex: style of dress, ways of greeting

Question 301

Polygyny

Answer 301

Many female partners

Question 302

David Broadbent

Answer 302

-Thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data.

Developed the Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention: inputs from the env’t first enter a sensory buffer. One input is selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input. The filter is designed to keep us from becoming overloaded and overwhelmed with information. Other senosry info stays in the buffer but then quickly decays

Question 303

Charismatic authority

Answer 303

The power of their persuasion

Question 304

Walking/stepping reflex

Answer 304

In response to the soles of a baby’s feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to walk

disappears at around six weeks and reappears at around 8-12 months

Question 305

How does gender identity develop?

Answer 305

Gender identity is very fluid among young children, but gender identity is believed to form between ages 3 and 6

Studies suggest that children develop gender identity in three distinct stages

1. as toddlers and preschoolers, they learn about defined characteristics, which are socialized aspects of gender
2. Around age 5-7 gender identity becomes rigid, in a process known as consolidation
3. After this “peak of rigidity” fluidity returns and socially defined gender roles relax somewhat after age 7

Question 306

Hallucinogens

Ex:

Mechanism:

Effects:

Answer 306

Ex: LSD, marijuana, THC

Mechanism: Distorts perception in the absence of sensory input

Effects: Hallucinations (lights, colors, etc); impaired judgment; slowed reaction time

Question 307

Epigenetic Differences

Answer 307

Translational changes in DNA sequence that are not triggered by altering DNA sequence

• Caused by the organisms’s environment or development
• Result in phenotypic differences
• May be heritable

chemical and physical modification to the genome that change the way that it is expressed but not the underlying genetic code

Question 308

Polyandry

Answer 308

Many male partners

Question 309

Major demographic factors

Answer 309

• Age
• Gender
• Race
• Ethnicity
• Sexual orientation
• Immigration status

Question 310

WHat is the process of medicalization driven by?

Answer 310

1. New information or discoveries regarding conditions (Obesity)
2. Changing social attitudes or economic considerations (ADHD)
3. The development of new medications or treatments (Viagra)

Question 311

Iron law of oligarchy

Answer 311

States that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies thus making democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations

Question 312

Hans Eysenck

Answer 312

• Personality traits are hierarchical with a few basic traits giving rise to a large array of more superficial traits
• Genetically determined differences in physiological functioning determines personality traits
• Variations in extraversion and neuroticism gives rise to various types of personality which helps explain behavior
• Temperament and heritability studies provide empirical evidence for a genetic contribution to personality

Question 313

Transgenesis

Answer 313

The introduction of an exogenous or outside gene or knockout gene to alter genotype while controlling for environment

Question 314

Confirmation Bias

Answer 314

Occurs when w seek evidence to support our conclusions or ideas more than we seek evidence that will refute them; this also occurs when we interpret neutral or ambiguous evidence as supporting our beliefs

Question 315

Alex and Pilar were both infected with the Chikungunya virus. While Alex had good health insurance and received excellent treatment for his condition, Pilar had to suffer the symptoms without medication because she could not afford and did not have health insurance. Which of the following would be concerned about this disparity in access to the healthcare system?

A. Social epidemiology

B. Social cognitive perspective

C. Social constructionism

D. Feminism

Answer 315

A

Question 316

Sexual orientation

Answer 316

A social construct that exists along a continuum with the heterosexual and homosexual

Question 317

Figure/Ground

Answer 317

Our perceptual tendency to separate the figure or object from everything else (the background) based on a number of possible variables like size shadow contrast color. Everything that is not figure is ground

Question 318

How do cultural values and beliefs impact health and medicine?

Answer 318

All cultures have systems of health beliefs to explan what causes illness, how it can be cured or treated, and who should be involved in that process

• Influence how people believe they became ill
• Play a major role in compliance
• May influence whether an individual is willing to admit to certain symptoms or seek treatment for an issue
• Determine who can make medicine decisions
• Trust with the edical system

Question 319

Detecting the stimulus requires

Answer 319

1. the acquisition of information
2. application of criteria

Question 320

Inclusive fitness

Answer 320

Defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offpsring support others in a group

That an organism can improve its overall genetic success through altruistic social behaviors

Question 321

Fixed ratio

Answer 321

provides reinforcement after a set number of behaviors

best for learning new behavior

Question 322

Common signs of autism

Answer 322

• Impaired social interaction: avoiding eye contact with other people, difficulty interpreting what others are thinking of feeling, may lack empathy
• Repetitive movements such as rocking and twirling, or self-abusive behavior such as biting or head-banging
• Inability to play interactively with other children

Question 323

Punishment

Answer 323

anything that will decrease the likelihood of the behavior happening again

Positive: application or pairing of an undesirable stimulus with the behavior (adding 20 push ups to bad behavior)

Negative: Removal of a desirable stimulus after the behavior has occurred (child breaks window whle playing basketball inside and loses TV privileges)

Question 324

Accept the null hypothesis

Answer 324

When you conclude that the treatment and control groups are sampled from the same population

Question 325

Lateral vs Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Answer 325

L: brings on hunger

V: depresses hunger

Question 326

Materialist

Answer 326

Believe that all discussion of “ideas” linguistic expression and the like is a set of convenient metaphors for real physcial changes in the brain and actions of the body. Only grey matter matters and study thoughts and words by looking at what happens in the brain when people think, speak, write, and listen

Question 327

Long term potentiation

Answer 327

When something is learned the synapses between neurons are strenghtened and the process of long term potentiation begins.

LTP occurs when following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in the synaptic strength between two neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli

Neurons develop an increased sensitivity so the sending neuron needs less prompting to fire its impulse and release its neurotransmitter

Question 328

Spreading Activation

Answer 328

When trying to retrieve information, we start the search from one node. Then we do not “choose” where to go next, but rather that activated node spreads its activation to other nodes around it to an extent related to the strength of association between that node and each other. Explains why hints are helpful

Question 329

Pitch

Answer 329

Frequency of sound is distinguished by which regions of the basilar membrane vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons

Low frequency sounds stimulate hair cells at the apex of the cochlear duct farthest away from oval window while high pitched sounds stimulate hair cells at the base of the cochlea near the oval window

Question 330

Normative social influence

Answer 330

When the motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection. People conform because they want to be liked and accepted by others

Question 331

George Herbert Mead Social Behaviorism

Answer 331

The mind and self emerge through the social process of communicating with others. He believed there was a specfic path to development:

Prepatory stage:Children merely imitate others as they have no concept of how others see things

Play stage: children take on the roles of others through playing (playing house)

Game stage: Children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously

Child develops an understanding of the generalized other the common behavioral expectations of general society

Question 332

Self Concept

Answer 332

Also known as your self-identity, self-construction, or self-perspectice. your self- concept includes all of your beliefs about who you are as an individual

Ex: female, African-American, student, smart, funny, future doctor

Question 333

Vestibular complex

Answer 333

made up of three semicircular canals: the utricle, the saccule, and the ampullae

All are essentially tubes filled with endolymph like the cochlea, they contain hair cells that detect motion

But function is to detect rotational acceleration of the head; they are innervated by afferent neurons which send balance info to the pons, cerebellum, and others

Question 335

Social capital

Answer 335

the social contacts that can benefit an individual in some way. In other words, when who you know can help you get what you want. A young woman who asks her father to leverage his social contact to help her prepare to apply to medical school is utilizing her social capital to obtain something she wants—medical school admittance.

Question 336

astrocytes

Answer 336

guide neuronal development; regulate synaptic communication via regulation of neurotransmitter levels

Question 337

Lifelong application stage

Answer 337

Beginning in adolescence and progressing through adulthood

Question 338

Aggregate

Answer 338

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

Question 339

What is Life Expectancy?

Answer 339

The number of years from birth an individual is expected to live, on average

Question 340

PHysiological Indicator of Circadian Rhythems

Answer 340

Melatonin released by pineal gland, body temperature, serum cortisol levels

Question 341

Role Conflict

Answer 341

Occurs when two or more statuses are held by and individual and there is conflict between the expectations for each status

Question 342

State capitalism

Answer 342

A system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but closely monitored and regulated by the government

Question 343

Sensitization

Answer 343

Occurs when the organism demonstrates increased responsiveness to the stimulus (sort of the opposite of habituation)

Ex: Standing at a rock concert near the speakers. Over time, instead of getting used to it, the sound becomes even more painful

Question 344

Criticisms of Conflict Theory

Answer 344

Focuses too much on conflict and does not recognize the role of stability within society. It ignores the nonforceful ways in which people and groups reach agreement. It approaches society more from the perspective of those who lack power and focues on economic factors almost exclusively as the sole issue for conflict within society

Question 345

Parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 345

provides signals to the internal organs during a calm resting state when no crisis is present. When activated, it leads to changes that allow for recovery and the conservation of energy including an increase in digestion and the repair of body tissues

Question 346

Primary reinforcer

Answer 346

Somehow innately satisfying or desirable. These we do not need to learn or see as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival.

Ex: food because it is required for survival

Avoiding pain and danger

Question 347

Race

Answer 347

Concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics (which usually result from genetic ancestry)

Question 348

Sapir Whorf Hypothesis

Answer 348

People understand their world through language and that language in turn shapes how we experience our world

Question 349

Group polarization

Answer 349

Occurs when groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members that is the average view of a member of the group is accentuated

Not when a group becomes more divided on an issue

Question 350

Circadian Rhythms

Answer 350

ALso known as the biological clock, circadian rhythms control the increases and decreases in our alertness in predictable ways over a 24 hour cycle

Question 351

Hypothalamus

Answer 351

Brain structure that controls the physiological aspects of emotion such as sweating and a racing heart. It also communicates with the prefrontal cortex, located at the front of the cortex

Question 352

Social Constructionism

Answer 352

A theory that suggests reality is not inherent but socially constructed

People actively shape their reality through social interactions

Major focus of social constructionists is the study of how individuals and groups participate in the construction of society and social reality

Can be micro and macro

Question 353

Deindividuation

Answer 353

In situations where there is a high degree of arousal and low degree of personal responsibility, we may lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a mob mentality

Question 354

Based on the studies of Mary Ainsworth, there is a high chance that an abusive parent experienced which sort of attachment to their own parents?

A. Secure attachment

B. Insecure attachment

C. Anxious-avoidant attachment

D. Anxious-resistant attachment

Answer 354

Mary Ainsworth was a developmental psychologist popular for the “strange situation experiments” that tested the emotional attachment of infants. This series of experiments involved the separation of children and mothers to determine the infant’s response. Depending on the response during separation and after reunification, the infants were said to be securely attached or insecurely attached (choices C and D can be eliminated). Secure attachment involved some distress during separation, but the infant was consoled through contact with his or her mother. Insecure attachment involved more notable distress (such as loud crying), or indifference, and the infant remained upset, or indifferent, upon the return of his or her mother. There were also differences between these infants prior to the separation: securely attached infants explored more than insecurely attached infants, who sometimes clung to their mothers. This was thought to suggest that secure attachment is the result of infants having sensitive and responsive mothers and insecure attachment is the result of infants having insensitive and unresponsive mothers. The second type of mothers were said to be inconsistent in securing the needs of their children and to sometimes even ignore their children. The passage states that 90 percent of abusive parents themselves had abusive parents, which suggests the possibility of insecure attachment in infancy (choice A is wrong and choice B is correct).

Question 355

Selective Priming

Answer 355

People can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by having an expectation. If one is primed to observe something, one is more likely to notice it when it occurs

Question 356

Albert Bandura

Answer 356

First identified this basic form of learning and demonstrated it in children with his Bobo doll experiments:

• Young children were able to observe an adult model either acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll (experimental group) or not interacting at all with a Bobo doll (treatment group)
• The children were then “frustrated” in some way (the experimenter first told them they could play with a bunch of interesting toys, then told them they no longer could)
• The children were then placed back in the room with the Bobo doll and many of the children from the experimental group demonstrated similar aggression towards the Bobo doll

Question 357

Social Network

Answer 357

A social network is a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those inwhich people are indirectly connected through others

Question 358

Personality Disorders

Answer 358

Characteristics: Endurng (often lifetime) pattern of socially deviant feelings and behaviors, pattern is inflexible and occurs across a range of settings and relationships, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, not diagnosed in children, categorized in 3 clusters

Specific Disorders: Ten Personality Disorders

Cluster A: (odd/eccentric): Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders

Cluster B: (dramatic/erratic): Antisocial, Borderline HIstrionic and Narcissistic Personality Disorders

Cluster C: (Anxious/fearful) Avoidant, dependent, and OCD

Question 359

Vision

Answer 359

Image on retina which detects light and conerts stimuli into action potential to send to brain

Light enters the eye by passing through cornea where light is bent or refracted

sclera

choroid

retina

anterior chamber with aqueous humor

iris + opening called pupil

posterior chamber wi more humor

lens

Question 360

Agreeableness

Answer 360

High: tends to think of others; goes with the flow

Low: high-maintenance, manipulative, likely to hold strong opinions

Question 361

Absolute threshold

Answer 361

The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time

Question 362

Symptoms for PTSD

Answer 362

1. Avoidance: involves avoiding both circumstances that remind one of the trauma and emotions associated with the trauma
2. Hyperarousal: heightened sensitivity and hypervigilance to surroundings due to fear of danger
3. Re-experiencing are responses to triggers related to the traumatic event such as flash backs and nightmares

Question 363

Conditioned Response

Answer 363

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus. It is the same as the unconditioned response but now it occurs without the unconditioned stimulus

Question 364

Rooting reflex

Answer 364

In response to touching or stroking the baby’s cheeks baby will turn head in direction of the stroke and open its mouth to root for a nipple

Question 365

Endogamy

Answer 365

marriage within one’s class

Question 366

Motivation

Answer 366

the driving force that causes us to act or behave in certain ways

Question 367

Wernicke’s Area

Answer 367

Located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain; involved in the comprehension of speech and written language.

Wernicke’s Area: Do not have a problem producing speech but are incapable or producing intelligible meaningful language

Question 368

When a person is awake but sleepy and relaxed?

Answer 368

Individual’s EEG changes shows alpha waves (low amplitude, high frequency) 8-12 Hz

Indicator that a person is ready to drift off to sleep

Question 369

Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders

Answer 369

Characteristics: Exposure to traumatic or stressful event; Exhibit any of a wide range of symptoms

Specific Disorders; Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Acute Stress DIsorder, Adjustments Disorder

Question 370

Daily hassles

Answer 370

Everyday irritations in life

Question 371

Personality

Answer 371

While hard to define, essentially encompasses our thoughts, feelings, ways of thinking about beliefs and behavior

Question 372

Monoamine Hypothesis

Answer 372

Predicts that the underlying pathophysiologic basis of depression is a depletion in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine in the central nervous system

Question 373

Socialism

Answer 373

A system under which resources and means of production are owned by the society as a whole, private property rights are limited, the good of the whole society outweighs individuals profit, and the government controls the economy

• Good produced for direct use
• Private property is limited and government intervenes to share property amongst all
• Driving force is everyone is given a job and provided with what they need to survive

Question 374

Ependymal clls

Answer 374

produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

Question 375

Oral Stage

Answer 375

Erogenous zones (tasks) mouth (sucking, chewing, eating, biting, vocalizing);

Adult fixation: (orally aggressive verbally abusive), (orally passive smoking, overeating)

Question 376

Social mobility

Answer 376

Movement (upward or downward) between social stratifications. Mobility can be intragenerational, within the same generation, or intergenerational, between one or more generations

Question 378

Reference group

Answer 378

Any group that one identifies with and compares themselves to; they may or may not actually be a member of this group

(Doctors)

Question 379

Francis Galton

Answer 379

Proposed a theory of general intelligence in the mid 1800s. Believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quanitfied by testing certain cognitive tasks

Question 381

Long term memory

Answer 381

Question 382

Which of the following is NOT true regarding macro and micro sociological perspectives?

a) Both perspectives emphasize individual interactions.
b) Macrosociology focuses on society as a whole, as something that is prior to, and greater than, the sum of individual people.
c) Microsociology looks at the smallest building blocks of society and works up to larger social structures.
d) Macrosociology looks at large-scale social structures and how these affect individuals.

Answer 382

a

Question 383

Piage’t Four developmental Stages

Answer 383

1. Sensorimotor: birth -2; babies and young infants experience the world through their senses and movement such as looking, touching, mouthing. Object permanence, stranger anxiety
2. Preoperational Stage; 2-7

Children learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images. This accompanies their learning during pretend play and development of language but they still lack logical reasoning. Egocentric, do not understand other persspectices

3. Concrete operational stage: 7-11; children learn to think logically; understand volume
4. Formal operational stage: 12- adulthood; abstract and moral reasoning

Question 384

Meditation

Answer 384

• A practice in which an individual induces a mode of consciousness for some purpose
• Studies suggest that meditation is an effective means of stress reduction
• One study found that meditation appears to increase activity in the left frontal lobe (area more active in optimistic people)
• Meditation also linked to improve concentration, lower BP, and better immune function
• Lower frequency alpha and theta waves

Question 385

Specific Diagnoses of Neurocognitive Disorders

Answer 385

Major or mild Neurocognitive Disorders due to Alzheimer’s Disease of Parkinson’s Disease

Delirius

Question 387

Habituation

Answer 387

Occurs when the organism becomes accustomed to the stimulus

Question 388

Howard Becker’s Labeling Theory

Answer 388

Suggests that deviance is the result of society’s response to a person rather than something inherent in the person’s actions

Behavior become deviant. The use of negative labels can have serious consequences both for our perception of the deviant person and the person’s self perception

Individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self which can lead to self fulfilling prophecy

Individuals then might exhibit more deviant behavior to fulfill he expectation

Question 390

Priming

Answer 390

Prior activation of these nodes and associations

Ex: if you are shown several red items and asked to name a fruit. You will be more likely to name a red fruit

Question 391

Binocular Cues

Answer 391

Depth cues that depend on information received from both eyes and are most important for perceiving death when objects are close to us in our visual field

Question 393

Culture shock

Answer 393

The personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or visit to a new country, a move between social environments, or simply travel to another type of life

• Information overload
• Language barriers
• Technology or skill gaps

Question 394

Criticisms of Conflict Theory

Answer 394

Lacks stability and no altruism

Question 395

Token economy

Answer 395

A system in wihch targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers)

Question 396

Group vs aggregate vs category

Answer 396

Group is a number of people (as few as two) who identify and interact; an aggregate includes people who exist in the same space, but do not identify or interact; a category shares certain characteristics, but does not regularly interact

Question 397

Equilibrium Potential

Answer 397

Na+ eq potential is positive approx. 50 mV. Na+ ions are driven inward by their conc gradient. However if the interior of the cell is too positive, the ions will be repelled

K+ has neg eq potential. K+ are driven outward by their gradient but if the interior of the cell is too neg the pos charged ions cannot escap the attraction

Question 398

Fixation

Answer 398

Occurs when we have structured a problem in our mind a certain way, even if that way is ineffective, and then are unable to restructure if; you are then unable to see the problem from a fresh perspective

Question 399

Dramaturgical perspective

Answer 399

Stems from the theory of symbolic interactionism and posits that we imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others; we base our presentations on cultural values, norms, and expectations, with the ultimate goal of presenting an acceptable self to others

Font stage; impressions

back stage: ourselves

Question 400

Psychometrics

Answer 400

Scientific study of measuring psychological traits through tests

Question 401

Coercive Organization

Answer 401

Members have been forced to join

Ecclesia, military draft, prison

Question 402

Cross-sectional data

Answer 402

data collected all at once- a snapshot

Question 403

Weber characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

Answer 403

1. It covers a fixed area of activity
2. Hierarchy
3. Workers have specialized area of expertise
4. Organizational rank is impersonal and advancement depends on qualification
5. Workers follow procedures to increase predictability and effiiciency

Question 404

Research suggests that there are both biological and social influences on aggression, which is considered to be an innate instinct. There are three main predictors for aggressive behavior. The source of aggression in the case of child abuse might be:

I. biochemical.
II. genetic.
III. neural.

A. I and II only

B. I and III only

C. II and III only

D. I, II, and III

Answer 404

The three predictors for aggressive behavior are biochemical, genetic, and neural. The passage provides some discussion of the causes of child abuse in the final paragraph. Item I is true: The passage states that substance abuse is correlated with child abuse and reported in around 70 percent of cases (choice C can be eliminated). Alcohol, for example, can lower aggression inhibition. Item II is true: The passage also suggests that some children who are abused proceed to abuse their own children (90 percent of abusive parents reported experiencing abuse themselves). Furthermore, identical twin studies support the idea of some genetic predisposition toward aggressiveness; this might also be the case with the aggression that drives child abuse (choice B can be eliminated). However, social influences are also expected here; the fact that those who are abused often experience life-long consequences such as mental health issues (this is true for almost 80 percent of abused children), suggests that the cause might be social rather than biological; the experience of being abused might cause health problems that then lead to aggression. For example, those with borderline PD have difficulties controlling their impulses. This is often coupled with anger and other emotions that can be damaging to relationships. The human brain otherwise has mechanisms to inhibit aggression (areas in the frontal lobe help with this). Item III is true: The use of substances is a biochemical factor that alters the neural control of aggression (choice A can be eliminated and choice D is correct).

Question 405

Social loafing

Answer 405

occurs when working in a group; each person in the group has a tendency to exert less individual effort than if they were working independently

Question 406

C robert cloninger

Answer 406

linked personality to brain systems involved with reward, punishment, and motivation

Personality is linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters

Low dopamine activity correlates with higher impulsivity and novelty seeking, low norepinephrine activity correlates with higher approval seeking and reward dependence and low serotonin activity correlates with risk avoidance

Question 407

Client centered therapy

Answer 407

Stems from humanist perspective

active listening (repeating info back to patients)

Question 408

Social isolation

Answer 408

complete or near-complete lack of contact with others in society

Question 409

What is the sick role?

Answer 409

Theorizes that individuals who are ill have certain rights and responsibilities in society; if an individual cannot fulfill the same duties as a person in good health can, society allows for a reasonable amount of deviant behavior

Question 410

Answer 410

High Inter-quartile range

Question 411

Operant conditioning

Answer 411

Reinforcement (pleasurable consequences) and punishment (unpleasant consequences) are employed to mold behavioral responses

Question 412

fertility

Answer 412

is defined as a women’s ability to give birth to children

Question 413

Class System

Answer 413

• Some degree of social mobility
• Social status determined by birth and individual merit

Question 414

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 414

When an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioend stimulus is presented after some time

Ex: if the behavior of salivating to the sound of the bell becomes extinct in a dog, and it is then presented to the dog again after some amount of lapsed time and the dog salivates, the conditioned response was spontaneously recovered

Question 415

As a social institution, what is education?

Answer 415

A formal process whereby knowledge, skills, and values are systematically transmitted from one individual or group to another

Question 416

Absolute threshold

Answer 416

The lowest level of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time

Question 417

Bipolar Disorders

Answer 417

Characteristics: Bridge between Psychotic and Depressive Disorders, Involves episodes and oscillations (cycles)

Specific Disorders: Bipolar 1 Disorder (manic-depressive; mania) and Bipolar 2 Disorder (hypomania)

Cyclothymic Disorder (cycling between hypomania and minor depression)

Manic = grandiosity, impulsive, irritability, uninhibited thought patterns, delusions of persecution

Question 418

Monarchic governments

Answer 418

Controlled by a single person, or a selective small group who inherited their leadership role like kings and queens

Question 419

Ethnicity

Answer 419

An ethnic group or ethnicity is a population group whose members identify with each other on the basis of common nationality or shared cultural traditions

Question 420

George Herbert Mead “I” and “Me”

Answer 420

The “I” is the aspect of the self that allows individuals to evaluate the other part of the self that is the “Me”

Although it is possible to reflect on the “Me” it is not possible to directly reflect on the “I” since the “I” is the part of the self that is doing the reflecting

Question 421

Neural networks

Answer 421

Humans born with the highest number of neurons at any point in their life. However, not many neural networks or codified routes for information processing (types that are generated in response to learning and experience throughout a lifetime)

Rapid growth in frontal lobe occurs in ages 3 to 6

Question 422

Criticism of differential association

Answer 422

The idea that individuals are reduced to their environments instead of considering people as independent and rational. Fails to consider individual characteristics and experiences

Question 423

Psychoanalytic Therapy

Assumed Problem:

Therapy Goals:

Methods and Examples:

Answer 423

Assumed Problem: Unconscious forces and childhood experiences

Therapy Goals: Reduce anxiety through insight

Methods and Examples: Analysis and interpretation of dreams for ex.

Question 424

Free Recall

Answer 424

Remembering without a hint or clue

Question 425

Pons

Answer 425

controls some autonomic functions and coordinates movement; it palys a role in balance and antigravity posture

Question 426

Absolute refractory period

Answer 426

A neuron will not fire another action potential no matter how strong a membrane depolarization is induced.

Question 427

Prejudics vs discrimination

Answer 427

Prejudice involves preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people based on their group membership (gender, social class, age, disability, religion)

Prejudice is a belief and not a behavior

Although prejudice may lead to discrimination, discrimination is a biased treatment of an individual based on group membership

Question 428

Prevalence rate

Answer 428

cases of a disease or condition per number of individuals in a population

Question 429

Standard Deviation

Answer 429

Degree of variation from the mean

Question 430

Stimulants

Ex: Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, Cocaine

Mechanism: Increase release of neurotransmitters, inhibits reuptake of neurotransmitters

Effects: Sped up body functions pupil dilation, rush or high followed by crash

Question 431

Somatic Symptom Disorders

Answer 431

Excessive and/or medically unexplainable symptoms

Commonly encountered in primary care

Ex: Somatic Symptom Disorder, Illness Anxiety Disorder, COnversion Disorder, Factitious DIsorder

Question 432

Karl Marx

Answer 432

• Modern founder of sociology
• Theory forms foundation for Conflict Theory
• Societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide labor power
• Societies progress through class struggle between those who control production and those who provide the manpower for production
• Capitalism produces internal tensions which will ultimately destroy capitalist society to be replaced by socialism

Question 433

Basal nuclei

Answer 433

Regulate body movement and muscle tone; coordination of learned movement patterns; general pattern of rhythm movements

Question 434

Empiricist

Answer 434

• Behaviorists who argue that language is just another example of conditioned behavior
• They believe that study of psychology should focus on directly observable environmental factors as opposed to abstract mental states

Question 435

Accuracy depends on two types of nosie:

Answer 435

1. External noise
2. Internal noise

Question 436

Globalization

Answer 436

The process of international integration due to the exchange of viewpoints, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture around the world
Factors that promote this: Internet, transportation, technology

Question 437

Educational Segregation

Answer 437

The widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and those from low income neighborhoods

• schools in low income neighborhoods receive less taxes so they’re less funded –> Teacher turnover is higher
• Children more likely to drop out of school –> perpetuating the cycle of poverty
• parents in wealthier neighborhoods have the time and resources to be more involved

-

Question 438

Three components of emotion

Answer 438

• Physiologial component includes our physiological arousal or an excitation of our body’s internal state
• Behavioral component of emotion includes our expressive behavior that accompany the emotion
• Cognitive component of emotion includes our appraisal and interpretation of the situation

Question 439

Conditioned Stimulus

Answer 439

Is an originally neutral stimulus (bell) that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) until it can produce the conditioned reponse (salivation) without the unconditioned stimulus (food)

Question 440

States of consciousness include:

Answer 440

Alertness (being awake)

Sleeo

Question 441

Anne Treisman’s Attentuation Model

Answer 441

Tried to account for the cocktail party effect. Treisman believed that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator, which works like a volume knob- it “turns down” the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it

Question 442

Third wave feminism

Answer 442

Since the 1980s, focused on areas of concern left unauthorized by first- and second-wave feminists who were mostly white, middle class heterosexual, and American or European

Question 443

Longitudinal data

Answer 443

repeated data collection from a group of people over time

Question 444

Which of the following theories of emotion most accurately describes the symbolic interactionists’ perspective?

A. Schachter-Singer theory

B. James-Lange theory

C. Cannon-Bard theory

D. Attribution theory

Answer 444

According to the passage, symbolic interactionists believe that “an environmental or social situation triggers a generalized physiological stimulation, and that the emotion appropriate to the individual’s interpretation is then produced.” The Schachter-Singer theory is a cognitive theory of emotion in which emotion is labeled once an individual experiences physiological arousal, and then tries to find meaning behind the arousal through the interpretation of his or her experience (choice A is correct). The James-Lange theory suggests that physiological and behavioral responses to a given situation determine emotions (choice B is wrong). The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that physiological arousal and emotions occur simultaneously (choice C is wrong). Attribution theory refers to individuals attempting to explain the causes behind the behaviors of others and is not a theory about emotion (choice D is wrong).

Question 445

Standard Deviation

Answer 445

A measure of variability from the mean

Question 446

B.F. Skinner Language

Answer 446

Infants are trained in language by oeprant conditioning. Language use is a form of behavior like anoy other and so it is as subject to conditioning as a rat pulling a lever to receive a food pellet

Question 447

Availability Heuristic

Answer 447

Occurs when we rely on immediate examples that come to mind when trying to make a decision or judgment When you overestimate the probability and likelihood of something happening because you can think of examples of it happening, you’ve committed this error

Question 448

Replacement fertility rate

Answer 448

Fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced

*Sub-replacement fertility indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate

Question 449

Traditional economies

Answer 449

Consider social customs in economic decisions

-Bartering and trading

Question 450

Neo-Malthusianism

Answer 450

Movement based on these principles that advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain such as environmental effects

Question 451

Broca’s Area

Answer 451

Located in the dominant hemisphere (usually left) of the frontal lobe of the brain; involved in the complicated process of speech production

Broca’s Aphasia: People know what they want to say but are unable to communicate it

Question 452

Foot in the door technique

Answer 452

This technique involves asking for a small request first and then a much larger request next

Question 453

Resource model of attention

Answer 453

We have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality specific resources and general resources. If the resources required to perform multiple tasks simultaneously exceeds the available resources to do so, then the tasks cannot be accomplished at the same time.

Question 454

Experiment with Latent Learning

Answer 454

Experiments demonstrated latent learning in animals by placing three different groups of rats in mazes and observing their behavior

• Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze; these rats quickly learned to rush to the end of the maze
• Group 2 rats never found food; these rats wandered in the maze but did not preferentially go to the end
• Group 3 rats found no food for 10 days, but then received food on the eleventh; these rats acted the same as the Group 2 rats until food was introduced on Day 11, then they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze and did as well as the Group 1 rats by the next day

Question 456

Dissociative amnesia

Answer 456

Has at least one episode of forgetting some important personal information creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma

Amnesia is localized meaning that everything that happened during a particular time period is forgotten, but it can also be selective, generalized, continuous, or systematized

Begin and ends with full recovery of memory

Question 457

cognition

Answer 457

How we process information; in includes receiving and transforming information, storing information, recalling information, and all of the thoughts and processes that are involved with language, thinking, problem solving, decision making

Question 458

Humanistic Therapy

Assumed Problem:

Therapy Goals:

Methods and Examples:

Answer 458

Assumed Problem: Barriers to self understanding and self acceptance

Therapy Goals: Personal growth through self insight

Methods and Examples: Active listening and unconditional positive regard

Question 459

Groupthink is most likely to occur when

Answer 459

1. the group is overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance
2. group justifies its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents
3. Dissenting opinions, information, and/or facts are prevented from permeating the group (mindguarding)
4. Individuals feel pressured to conform and censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of group unanimity

Question 460

Max Weber

Answer 460

• Considered founder of modern sociology; Refined Marx’s assertions about conflict in society
• Disagreed with Marx: A capitalist system does lead to conflict, but the collapse of capitalism is not inevitable
• There could be more than one source of conflict (not just with those who control production) such as conflict over inequalities in political power and social status
• Suggested that several factors can moderate people’s reaction to inequality such as agreement with authority figures, high rates of social mobility, and low rates of class difference

Question 461

Anterograde amnesia

Answer 461

A loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact

Question 462

Carl Rogers

Answer 462

Founder of the humanistic psychology perspective

Said personality is composed of the ideal self and the real self

Ideal self is constructed out of your life experiencees, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models; the person you ought to be

Real self is the person you actually are

Question 463

Physiological Response to Stressors

Answer 463

1: Sympathetic nervous system releases the stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) into the bloodstream from the adrenal glands. This results in an increased heart and respiratory rate, directs blood flow toward skeletal muscles rather than digestive system, releases sugar into bloodstream, and dulls pain; fast-acting
2. Cognitive System: initiated by hypothalamus. Hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone a messenger that stimulates the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone which signals the adrenal glands to release cortisol into the bloodstream. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid a hormone that shifts the body from using sugar (glucose) as an energy source towards using fat as an energy source. This keep blood sugar levels high during stress ituations because the only energy source of the brain can use is glucose thus ensuring that the brain willl have enough fuel to stay active. Slower process triggered during long term stress

Question 464

According to Erikson, a child who is of preschool age and is exploring its surroundings is experiencing which basic conflict?

A. Trust vs. mistrust

B. Initiative vs. guilt

C. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

D. Intimacy vs. isolation

Answer 464

Children at preschool age experience Erikson’s initiative vs. guilt stage as their main conflict, and the preschool stage is characterized by exploration (choice B is correct). Trust vs. mistrust occurs during the infancy stage, which is characterized by feeding (choice A is wrong). Autonomy vs. shame and doubt occurs in the early childhood stage, which is characterized by toilet training (choice C is wrong). Intimacy vs. isolation occurs in the young adulthood stage, which is characterized by relationships (choice D is wrong)

Question 465

Positive reinforcement

Answer 465

Adds something desirable to increase likelihood of behavior happening again;

examples:

• candy for completing homework
• money for completing chores

Question 466

availability of healthcare

Answer 466

presence of resources across the US (whether or not healthcare resources even exist for someone who needs these resources)

Question 467

Obedience

Answer 467

This occurs when you yield to explicit instructions or orders from an authority figure

Question 468

Anal Stage

Answer 468

1-3 yrs

Erogenous zones: Anus (bowel and bladder control)

Adult Fixation: Anal retentive: overly neat/tidy

Anal expulsive: disorganized

Question 469

Cultural Relativism

Answer 469

The principle that an individual human’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture

Question 470

Consciousness

Answer 470

The awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states, and the env’t

Is important for reflection and directs our attention

Always needed to complete novel and complex tasks, however we may complete practiced and simple tasks with little conscious awareness

Question 471

Where did feminist theory emerge from?

Answer 471

Feminist practice in the 19th and 20th centuries, specifically from advocating for the political, economic, and social rights of women based on the belief in women’s political, economic, and social equality to men

Question 472

Freud proposed that the human psyche could be composed of?

Answer 472

1. The id: largely unconscious and responsible for our drives to avoid pain and seek pleasure
2. The ego: responsible for our logical thinking and planning
3. The superego: responsible for our moral judgments of right and wrong and strives for perfection

Question 473

Environmental injustice

Answer 473

Suggests that certain groups (low SES and minorities) tend to live in areas where environmental hazards and toxins are disproportionately high

Question 474

Institutional discrimination

Answer 474

Refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objecties

Ex: Policy of the U.S. Military which frowned upon openly gay men and women serving in the armed forces

Question 475

Functionalism micro or macro level theory?

Answer 475

Macro-level theory of society, which means that it focuses on the elements that shape society as a whole

Question 476

Distribution of sample means

Answer 476

Given a sample of a specified size from a given population, we can plot the distribution of means for every possible sample of this size

Question 477

Dissociative Disorders

Answer 477

Disruptions and/or discontinuities

Abnormal integration of consciousness identity emotion etc

Ex: Dissociative Identity Disorder, Dissociative Amnesia, Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Question 478

Two reasons why group polarization occurs

Answer 478

1. Informational influence: most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. This serves to persuade others to take a stronger stance toward this viewpoint
2. Normative influence: social desirability, wanting to be accepted or admired by others

Question 479

Hostile aggression vs Instrumental aggression

Answer 479

Hostile: accompanied by strong emotions, behavior is impulsive, unplanned, uncontrollable and goal is to harm the other person

Instrumental: behavior is goal oriented, planned, controlled, and the goal is to harm the person to obtain something else

3 factors: environmental factors, biological, and cultural

Question 480

Palmar grasp reflex

Answer 480

In response to stroking the baby’s palm, the baby’s hand will grasp

Lasts a few months

Question 481

Mechanical solidarity

Answer 481

Allow society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience

Collective conscience

Question 482

Society

Answer 482

Can be defined as the group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area

Question 483

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Answer 483

• Manifest early in development (early-onset), usually before grade school
• Appear as deficits
• Generally difficult to treat
• Characterized by intellectual disability and communication disorders
• Specific Diagnosis:

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder

• Unknown causes
• Affects 2-4% of school aged children

Motor restlessness, difficulty paying attention, distractability, impulsivity

-Actually use stimulants to treat

Question 484

Interference

Answer 484

WHen competing material makes it more difficult to encode or retrieve information

Question 485

Door in the face technique

Answer 485

Involves asking for a large request first, then a much smaller request

Question 486

Major Sociological Theories

Answer 486

1. Functionalism
2. Conflict Theory
3. Symbolic Interactionism
4. Social Constructionism

Question 487

Group polarization

Answer 487

Groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members

Not that they become more divided on an issue but that they adopt the more extreme version than they initially shared

Question 488

Projection bias

Answer 488

we assume others have the same beliefs we do

Question 489

Desensitization

Answer 489

Occurs when the organism demonstrates a diminished response to the stimulus

Ex: after a really loud rock concert, the sound of an ambulance may sound abrasive. But the next morning when you hear it again it might not be as bad

Question 490

There are many reported long-term effects of child abuse, including greater risk for the personality disorder (PD) in the same cluster as all of the following, EXCEPT:

A. antisocial PD.

B. dependent PD.

C. histrionic PD.

D. narcissistic PD.

Answer 490

The final paragraph states that borderline personality disorder is one of the long-term consequences of the sexual abuse of children. Borderline PD is a cluster B disorder. The other disorders in this cluster are antisocial PD, histrionic PD, and narcissistic PD (choices A, C, and D are in the same cluster and can be eliminated). Dependent PD is categorized as a cluster C disorder (choice B is the correct answer).

Question 491

homogeneity

Answer 491

when group members in a study are similar

Question 492

Reference group

Answer 492

group that you compare yoursel to

Question 493

Functionalism

Answer 493

A theory that views society as a complex system composed of many individual parts working together to maintain solidarity and social stability

• Compares society to a living organism. Like an organism composed of various cells, tissues, organs, various elements in a society (individuals, families, communities, groups, orgs) also work together in society

Question 494

Functional fixedness

Answer 494

a mental bias that limits our perspective for how an object can be used based on how that object is traditionally used

Question 495

Medulla

Answer 495

Relays information between other areas of the brain and regulates vital autonomic functions such as blood pressure and digestive functions

Question 496

Korsakoff’S Syndrome

Answer 496

Chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (Vitamin B-1)

Most commonly caused by alcohol misuse, but can also be associated wtih AIDS, chronic infections, poor nutrition, and certain other conditions

Question 497

Attended Channel vs Unattended Channel

Answer 497

A: information coming into one ear- listen to this one

U: Ignore input to the other ear

Question 498

3 types of stressors

Answer 498

Catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles

Question 499

Depressants

Ex:

Mechanism:

Effects:

Answer 499

Ex: Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates

Mechanism: Depresses CNS (esp fight or flight)

Effects: Impaired motor control; eventual addiction, overdoses can lead to death

Question 500

Symbols

Answer 500

Culturally derived social objects that have shared meanings which are created and maintained through social interaction

Through language and communication, symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed

Question 501

Attention

Answer 501

The active consciousness that allows us to focus awareness on some stimuli v others. Subcategories include selective attention and divided attention

Models of attention generally include the resource mdoel, spotlight model, filter model, and attenuation model

Resource model views attention as a limited source that can become spread too thin

Spotlight model views attention as a focal point that can shift

Question 502

Rational-legal authority

Answer 502

Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution. Many corporations including health care organizations work within this structure and are often organized in a similar way

Question 503

Social stigma

Answer 503

may arise from deviant behavior but it may also result from circumstances over which an individual has no control. A social stigma is the extreme disapproval of a person on socially characteristic grounds that distinguish them from other members of a society

Question 504

Ghrelin vs leptin

Answer 504

G: released by the stomach and pancreas, heightens the sensation of hunger

L: hormone released by white adipose tissue reduces hunger

Question 505

Erik Erikson

Answer 505

Extended Freud’s ideas in two important ways

• Including social and interpersonal factors
• Extending the stages through adulthood

Question 506

Mass hysteria

Answer 506

Diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotion and escalates until it spirals out of control

Question 507

Bottom up processing

Answer 507

starts with information from our sensory receptors anad builds up to a final product in our brain; this type of processing assumes that we start with the details and end with a final representation in our mind

Ex: Looking at a cup: “It’s a cyliner, white, it says “I hate mondays” it has black fluid in it oh its coffee

Question 508

Life Expectancy

Answer 508

The number of years from birth an individual is expected to live, on average

Question 509

Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association

Answer 509

Argues that a deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. The process of learning the techniques of deviant behaviors as well as motives and values that rationalize these behaviors. Source of exposure: individual’s closest personal groups

Question 510

Capitalism

Answer 510

A system under which resources and means of production are privately owned, citizens are encouraged to seek profit for themselves, and success of failure of an enterprise is determined by free-market competition

• Good/services are produced for a profit
• Driving force is the pursuit of personal profit
• Benefits the consumer by allowing for competition which promotes higher quality and lower price of goods and services
• Emphasize personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations

Question 511

Sensitivity

Answer 511

Experiment concludes there is a difference between groups

Question 512

Behavioral genetics

Answer 512

A field in which variation among individuals is separated into genetic versus environmental components

Question 513

Encoding

Answer 513

Transfer of sensory memory into our memory system. May involve the coding/processing of information to be stored (Step 1)

Question 514

Openness to Experience

Answer 514

High: Embraces new ideas, likes unique, original experiences, values difference in people

Low: Traditional, prefers familiarity over novelty, conservative

Question 515

Counterculture

Answer 515

Opposes the dominant culture

Ex: Black panthers, KKK, 1960s hippies

Question 517

Prejudice

Answer 517

Refers to the thoughts, attitudes, feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience

Question 518

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 518

When presenting dogs with food (unconditioned stimulus), they begin salivating (unconditioned response)

When presenting the dogs with food along with the sound of the bell (neutral stimulus) they still salivate in response to the food

Over time when only the bell (conditioned stimulus) is presented, the dogs will begin salivating (conditioned response) even without the presence of food

Question 519

Secondary group

Answer 519

short term relationship

Question 520

Vagus nerve

Answer 520

Decrease heart rate and increase GI activity; part of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

Question 521

Significant Life Changes

Answer 521

Include personal events or occurrences that have a major impact on our lives; these can be either positive (e.g. marriage or birth) or negative (e.g. divorce, death) but still may cause some degree of stress due to the major change

Question 522

Extinction

Answer 522

Losing a conditioned behavior

Question 523

Which of the following is not one of the three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influences?

Internalization

Compliance

Externalization

Identification

Answer 523

externalization

Compliant behavior is motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment.

Compliance is easily extinguished if rewards or punishments are removed. Identification behavior is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group. Internalized behavior is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one’s own value system. Someone who has internalized a value is less likely to behave in ways that do not reflect this value. This is the most enduring motivation of the three.

Question 524

Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 524

Provides the body with brief, intense vigorous responses. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar levels. DIrects the adrenal glands to release the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine

Question 525

Attribution Theory

Answer 525

It explains how we understand our own behavior and the behavior of others. Given a set of circumstances, we tend to attribute behavior to:

• Internal causes, also known as dispositional attribution
• or external causes, also known as situational attribution

Question 526

Halo effect

Answer 526

Tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics

Ex: Overall impression of your neighbor is he is nice so you make the assumption that he must be a good dad

Question 527

Culture

Answer 527

Everything that is made, learned, and/or shared by the members of a society including: beliefs, behaviors, values, and material objects

Question 528

Encoding of Sensory Stimuli

Answer 528

1. Modality: type of stimulus that is being detected; modality is communicated based on the type of receptor that is firing
2. Location: communicated by the receptive field of the stimulus
3. Intensity: how strong the stimulus is; intensity is encoded by the ratte of firing of action potentials
4. Duration: how long the stimulus is present

Question 529

Discrimination (Associative Learning)

Answer 529

Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other stimuli and is the only thing to elicit the conditioned response

Question 530

Second wave feminism

Answer 530

In the 1960s and 1970s, focused on women’s liberation: gender equality, sexual rights, reproductive rights, and resisting patriarchal culture

Question 531

Mechanoreceptors

Answer 531

Respond to mechanical disturbances

• Pacinian corpuscles: pressure sensors located deep in the skin
• Auditory hair cell: specialized cell found in the cochlea of the inner ear; detects vibrations caused by sound waves
• vestibular hair cells: detect acceleration and position relative to gravity

Question 532

Organization

Answer 532

A large group of people with a common purpose; these tend to be more complex, impersonal, and hierarchically structured than networks

Question 533

Lifetime Prevalence

Answer 533

Number of percentage of people who have been diagnosed with a disease or condition at any point during their lives

Question 534

Cued Recall

Answer 534

Remembering with the aid of a hint of clue

Question 535

Neurocognitive Disorders

Answer 535

• Cognition is centrally affected
• Specific or general cognitive decline
• Deficits in cognitive function range from major to mild

Characterized by:

• cognitive decline from a previous level of performance in one or more cognitive domains, such as complex attention, executive function, learning, memory, language, perceptual-motor, or social cognition
• Symptoms may interfere significantly with a person’s everyday independence in a Major Neurocognitive Disorder, but not with a Mild Neurocognitive DIsorder

Question 536

Cult/ New Religious Movement

Answer 536

Religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

Often gets bad reputation

Branch Davidians and Heaven’s Gate

Question 537

Mere exposure effect

Answer 537

A psychological phenomenon whereby we tend to develop a preference for things we’re familiar with

Question 538

Perceptual constancy

Answer 538

We perceive an object as unchanging even as the illumination angle, and distance of the object change

1. Shape constancy: familiar objects are perceived as having a constant form despite changes in the images that are projected onto our retinas
2. Size constancy: we perceive objects as having a constant size even as the distance of the object changes
3. Lightness (Brightness) Constancy: We perceive objects as having a constant brightness despite changes in illumination

Question 539

Abraham Maslow

Answer 539

Sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs

At the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic elements necessary to sustain human life

If these needs are met we will seek safety; if the need for safety is met, we will seek love and so on

His pyramid suggests that not all needs are created equal; some needs take priority over others

At the top is self-actualization; best version of themselves. focus on themselves and work on their goals

Question 540

Interquartile Range

Answer 540

Q3 - Q1

Question 541

Market ecnomies

Answer 541

• Economic decisions based on the market (supply and demand)
• The means of production are often private
• Laissez-faire and free market economies

Question 542

Cognitive dissonance

Answer 542

Theory suggests that we feel tension (dissonance) whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs that are incompatible or when our attitudes and behavior don’t match; in order to reduce this feeling of tension, we make our views of the world match how we feel or what we’ve done

Question 543

Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow

Answer 543

Conducted a series of experiments on monkeys which were prompted by the observation that when isolated baby monkeys were separated from their blankets they became very distressed because they had formed an intense attachment to the object

• Predominant belief at the time was that babies formed attachments to their mothers because of the need for food
• The Harlows set up two surrogate wire “mothers” a nutrient mother with a bottle and a cloth mother
• They found that baby monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother and only went to the nutrient mother for food
• These severely deprived monkeys also demonstrated social deficits when reintroduced to other monkeys

Question 544

False consensus

Answer 544

when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do

Question 545

Role

Answer 545

A socially defined expectation about how you will behave based on your status

Question 546

Major Depressive Disorder

Answer 546

• Fatigue/loss of energy
• Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
• Impaired concentration, indecisiveness
• Insomnia or hypersomnia
• Loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities
• Restlessness of feeling slowed down
• Recurring thoughts of death or suicide
• Significant weight gain or loss

Question 547

Power

Answer 547

The extent to which a study can detect a difference when a difference exists

Question 548

Depersonalization/Derealization

Answer 548

Person has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off of detached from his or her body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside in something like an out of body experience

Question 549

Buddhism

Answer 549

• Based on the teachings of Siddhartha
• Overcoming cravings for physical or material pleasures primarily through meditative practices

Question 550

The representativeness heuristic

Answer 550

Occur when we estimate the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototypes that already exists in our minds. Our prototype is what we think is the most relevant or typical example of a particular event or object

Question 551

Social Institution

Answer 551

Standardized sets of social norms organized to preserve a basic societal value

They are complexes of roles, norms, and values that contribute to social order by governing the behavior of people

• Education
• Family
• Religion
• Government, Economy, Politics
• Health and medicine

Question 552

Three components of attitude

Answer 552

Cognition: thoughts and beliefs about the person, object, or event

Affect: our feelings about the person, object, or event

Behavior: our internal and external responses to the person, object, or event

Question 553

What is economy?

Answer 553

The set of arrangements by which a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods, services, and other resources

Question 554

Prevalence of most common psychological disorders

Answer 554

Anxiety Disorders 18%

Dissociative Disorders 10%

Depressive Disorder 10%

Personality 6%

Eating Disorders 6%

Somatic Symptom Disorders 3%

Psychotic Disorders 2%

Question 555

Medicalization

Answer 555

A social process whereby human conditions (behavioral, physiological, or emotional) come to be defined and treated as medical conditions

Ex: Obesity

Question 556

Reflexive movements

Answer 556

-Primitive, involuntary that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more sophisticated movement to come

Ex: palmar prime nervous system for more controlled grasping later

Question 557

A t test

Answer 557

uses the control sample to estimate the population parameter, then calculates the probability that the treatment group is sampled from this same population

Question 558

Behaviorist Perspective of Personality

Answer 558

Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on our environment

B.F. Skinner: founding father: Empiricist

Perspective suggests

• personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment
• studies observable/measurable behaviors, and does not take internal thoughts and feelings into account
• Is deterministic: people begin as blank slates and environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual’s subsequent behavior and personalities

development of the personality occurs through

1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning

Question 559

Generalization

Answer 559

Refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response. So if the dogs salivate to the sound of a chime or a doorbell, even though those were not the same sounds as the conditioned stimulus, the behavior has been generalized

Question 560

Role exit

Answer 560

Occurs when you transition from one role to another

Question 561

Extraversion

Answer 561

HIgh: gregarious

Low: prefers solitary activities

Question 562

Brainstem

Answer 562

Medulla, pons, and midbrain

contains important processing centers and relays imformation to or from the cerebellum and cerebrum

Question 563

Classical Conditioning

Answer 563

A process in which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes

Question 564

Exteroceptors and interoceptors

Answer 564

E: detect stimuli from the outside world

I: recptors that respond to internal stimuli

Question 565

Bureaucracy

Answer 565

A system for managing public services that includes decision making by non elected officials, the implementation of rules and laws, and a system of set procedures meant to simplify the complex functioning of organizations

Question 566

Social segregation

Answer 566

Occur when people from the same social groups tend to interact with each other and have minimal contact with individuals frm other groups

Question 567

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 567

When we attribute another person’s behavior to their personalities

Example: Someone has been waiting 20 minutes to see the doctor and gets angry with the receptionist for having to wait and you think “wow that person is a jerk”

Question 568

Fixed interval

Answer 568

Provides reinforcement after a consistent period of time

Question 569

Negatives of Medicalization

Answer 569

1. overdiagnosis
2. stigma
3. Overprescribing (antibiotics or psychiatry)

Question 570

Humanist Perspective

Answer 570

Developed by Carl Rogers, asserts that humans are driven by actualizing tendency to realzie thier own highest potential, and personality conflicts arise when this is somehow thwarted

Rather than stages, Rogers described human development as progressing from undifferentiated to differentiated

• Main goal development of a self-concept
• Self-concept was influenced by unconditional and conditional positive regard
• Those raised with unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to achieve self-actualization
• Those rasied with conditional positive regard feel worthy only when’ve met certain conditions
• The ideal self is an impossible standard we can never accomplish, shaped by society’s expectations
• WHen the real self and ideal self are incongruent, this may cause psychopathology

Question 571

Range

Answer 571

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Question 572

Relative refractory period

Answer 572

A neuron can be induced to transmit an action potential but the depolarization required is greater than normal because the membrane is hyperpolarized

Question 573

Charles Spearman

Answer 573

First coined the term general intelligence. Believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive tests and those who possessed high general intelligence would do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability

Question 574

Microglia

Answer 574

Remove dead cells and debris

Question 575

Retrieval

Answer 575

Extracting information that has been stored (Stage 3)

Types

• Free Recall
• Cued Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning

Question 576

Sociological Theories

Answer 576

Attempt to explain social phenomena

Question 577

Social cognition

Answer 577

The ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

Question 578

Relationshp between sleep, light, and melatonin

Answer 578

Key factor in how sleep is regulated involves exposure to light which stimulates a nerve pathway from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus. THE SCN signals other parts of the brain which regulate body temperature and control the production and release of hormones. Whe exposed to light at the beginning of the day, our body temp rises and hormones (like cortisol) are released indicating wake up

Melatonin produced by pineal gland. Darkness causes the pineal gland to start producing and releasing melatonin. As melatonin levels rise, you begin to feel tired. Melatonin levels stay elevated throughout the night light of a new day causes melatonin levels to fall. Bright light regulates function of SCN and directly inhibits release of melatonin

Question 579

Acquisition

Answer 579

Process of learning the conditioned response. Time during the experiment when the bell and food are always paired

Question 580

When does learned helplessness tend to occur?

Answer 580

An individual possesses low efficacy and an external locus of control

Question 581

Sucking reflex

Answer 581

In response to anything touching the roof of the babys mouth it will begin to suck

Question 582

Appraisal

Answer 582

How an event is interpreted by the individual

Ex: Couple hear creaking in house. One may attribute it to age of the house but other might think it’s a burglar

Question 583

Rate of population change

Answer 583

Difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate

Question 584

Authoritarian vs Permissive vs Authoritative Parenting

Answer 584

Authoritarian: attempting to control children with strict rules to be followed unconditionally; parents utilize punishment instead of discipline not explain reasoning behind rules; children display aggressive behavior; shy around others; lower self esteem

Permissive: very lenient; rarely discipline; children lack self discipline, self involved, poor social skills

Authoritative: parents listen to children, encourage independence, place limits on behavior, warmth and nurturing

Question 585

Fluid levels

Answer 585

The intake of fluids is stimulated by specialized osmoreceptors in the brain that detect dehydration. These receptors communicate with the pituitary gland to stimulate the release of antiduretic hormone (ADH) which communicates with the kidneys to reduce urine production by reclaiming water. When blood volume is low, hunger ofr sodium is stimulated to increae the concentration of salt int he blood and third to replace the lost fluid.

Question 586

Stage 3 and Stage 4 Sleep

Answer 586

A person transitions into slow wave sleep. Characterized by delta waves which are high amplitude, low frequency waves (0.5-3 Hz) and significy the deepest level of sleep

Initially delta waves are mixed with higher frequency waves but as Stage 3 progresses to Stage 4, delta waves comes to dominate.

No eye movement and moderate muscle movement

Heart rate and digestion slow

Growth hormones secreted

Question 587

Negative reinforcement

Answer 587

Some sort of undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior

Ex: the electric shock

Question 588

Sample

Answer 588

A subset of the population whose data is utilized in the study. A value taken from a sample is called a sample statistic

Question 589

Difference threshold

Answer 589

just notticeable difference

minimum noticeable distance between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time

Question 590

IF the probability is less than 5%

Answer 590

We reject the null hypothesis and accept the experimental hypothesis

Question 591

Source monitoring errors

Answer 591

misidentifying the origins of our knowledge

Question 593

Securely attached infants

Answer 593

will happily explore their surroundings while thier mother is present, cry when their mother leaves the room, but are quickly consoled upon her return

Question 594

Ways that behavior may be motivated by social influences

Answer 594

1. Compliance: behavior is motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment. Likely punishment for disobeying authority
2. Identification: behavior motivated by desire to be like another person or group
3. Internalization: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one’s own value system

Question 595

In addition to its roles in childbirth and lactation, oxytocin release has been linked to feelings of love and attachment. In which of the following brain areas is oxytocin produced?

A. Hypothalamus

B. Thalamus

C. Anterior pituitary

D. Posterior pituitary

Answer 595

While the posterior pituitary does release oxytocin, oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus (choice A is correct; choice D is wrong). The thalamus is mainly responsible for regulating consciousness and sleep, as well as sensory and motor signals; it does not produce oxytocin (choice B is wrong). There are numerous hormones produced by the anterior pituitary (including ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, growth hormone, and prolactin), but oxytocin is not one of them (choice C is wrong).

Question 596

Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 596

Responsible for controlling the activities of most of the organs and glands and controls arousal. Answers primarily to the hypothalamus

Question 597

Ethnocentrism

Answer 597

The belief in the inherent superiority of one’s own ethnic group of culture

Question 598

Prefrontal cortex

Answer 598

Critical for emotional experience, temperament, and decision making. Soft voice that calms the amygdala when it is overly aroused. Plays a role in executive functions: higher order thinking processes such as planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior, and decision making

Question 599

Self handicapping

Answer 599

A strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly. It is easier to erect external hindrances to explain our poor performance than to risk considering or having others consider an internal characteristic to be the cause of a poor performance

Question 600

General fertility rate

Answer 600

to the annual number of live births for every 1,000 women of childbearing age

Question 601

Informational social influence

Answer 601

The process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others “know something I don’t”

Question 602

Secondary traits

Answer 602

Traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient while waiting in line

Question 603

Latent learning

Answer 603

Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required

Question 604

Stimulus modality

Answer 604

type of stimulus, based on which type of receptor is firing

Question 605

Social epidemiology

Answer 605

Studies the social determinantss of health and uses social concepts to explain patterns of health in the population

Investigates:

1. Features of societal conditions that affect health
2. Pathways by which societal conditions affect health

Question 606

Patrick will be attending kindergarten this September. Which of the following is/are latent functions of Patrick’s attending school:

1. Patrick’s mother will no longer have to worry about childcare during the day.
2. Patrick will socialize with children his own age.
3. Patrick will learn basic reading skills.

Answer 606

1 and 2

Question 607

Mood dependent memory

Answer 607

What we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state

Question 608

Bipolar 1

Answer 608

Sponatneous manic episode not triggeed by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition or medication

Swing to a full depressive episode or only to partial or moderate depression or no depresssion at all

In mixed episode person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly every day for at least a week

Symptoms severe enough to cause psychotic features, hospitalization, impaired work, social functioning

Question 609

Subculture

Answer 609

A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society

Members

Question 610

Normal Distribution

Answer 610

Type of probability distribution

symmetric

mean equal to the mode

A measure of variability from the mean

Question 611

Primary group

Answer 611

someone you have a long lasting relationship with

Question 612

Weber’s Law

Answer 612

Dictates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible

Question 613

Final stage of sleep - REM sleep

Answer 613

• Characterized by bursts of quick eye movements
• EEG measures waves that most resemble the beta waves see in individuals when awake
• The waves in REM sleep are sawtooth waves with low intensity and variable frequency
• Waves are more jagged in appearance than beta waves which are also low intensity but high frequency (16-25 Hz)
• Low skeletal muscle movement (paradoxical sleep)
• When dreams occur

Question 615

Discrimination

Answer 615

Involves acting a certain way toward a group

Question 616

Master Status

Answer 616

Role or position that dominates; this tends to determine your general “place” in society

Others may have given it to you or you think it is the most important

Can be positive or negative

Can change over time

“Neuroscientist”

Question 617

Psychological Disorder

Answer 617

A set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

Question 618

Achieved Status

Answer 618

One that is earned

(Doctor)

Question 619

False memories

Answer 619

A fabricated or distorted recollection of an event that did not actually happen

Question 620

Christianity

Answer 620

• Largest single faith in the world
• 30% of the globe’s population
• Monotheistic
• Followers believe in Jesus (son of God), an afterlife, and judgement day

Question 621

Internal Validity

Answer 621

The extent to which we can say that the change in the outcome variable (or dependent variable) is due to the intervention

-confounding variables are controlled for and do not present an alternate explanation to the outcome of an experiment

Question 622

Neuroticism

Answer 622

High: high levels of negative emotion can be impulsive

Low: experiences more positive emotions; copes well with sress

Question 623

Freud’s Psychosexual stages of development

Answer 623

0-1: Oral stage

1-3: Anal

3-6: Phallic

6-12: Latency

12+: Genital

Question 624

Social construct

Answer 624

Anything that appears to be natural and obvious to people who accept it but is largely an invention of a given society

Question 625

Mores

Answer 625

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced

Ex: animal abuse and treason are actions that break mores in the United States

Question 626

Traditional Authority

Answer 626

Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

Question 627

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Answer 627

There are two cognitive routes of persuasion

1. Central route: people are persuaded by the content of the argument itself
   - Target audience: high motivation and ability to think about message
2. Peripheral route: people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or the orator, like the attractiveness of the orator, the length of the speech, whether the orator is considered an expert in his field
   - Low motivation and ability to think about message

Question 628

Insight Learning

Answer 628

previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

Question 629

Addiction

Answer 629

Defined as compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences and is characterized by an inability to stop using a drug, failure to meet work, social, or family obligations and sometimes (depending on the drug), tolerance, and withdrawal

Question 632

Bureaucracy

Answer 632

Term used to describe an administrative body and the processes by which this body accomplishes work tasks. Each member of the organization has a specific role.

Question 633

What are three things that foster attraction in humans?

Answer 633

1. Proximity: we tend to like people who are closer to us
2. Similarity: couples and close friends tend to be similar in age, race, physical attractiveness, attitudes
3. Physical attractiveness: we tend to attribute positive characteristics to people who are physically attractive

Question 634

Which of the following theorists would argue that religion promotes social solidarity and a collective consciousness?

Weber

Mead

Marx

Durkheim

Answer 634

Durkheim

Durkheim was an advocate of functionalism and argued that religion promotes social solidarity as well as a collective consciousness, making individuals feel a part of an entity greater than themselves. Weber and Marx are both affiliated with conflict theory, which would suggest that religion is associated with conflict in society, rather than with solidarity. Mead is most associated with symbolic interactionism (a micro-level theory) and the development of the social self.

Question 635

Retrograde amnesia

Answer 635

A loss of memory access to events that occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the onset of a disease

Question 636

When sleep begins (Stage 1 sleep)

Answer 636

First stage of non-REM is entered.

EEG is dominated by theta waves (waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency) 3-7 Hz

EOG measures slow rolling eye movements and EMG measures moderate activity

Person becomes less responsive to stimuli and has fleeting thoughts

Question 637

Symbolic Interactionism and Social constructionism

Answer 637

Unlike the other two are bottom up approaches

Question 638

Organic solidarity

Answer 638

Allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience

Question 639

Division of labor

Answer 639

Occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meet all of his or her needs alone

Different occupations emerge

Increase in interdependence

Increased the rate of production but decreased the similarities in social experience among individuals contributing to class differences

Question 640

Three key elements to persuasion

Answer 640

1. Message characteristics: the features of the message itself, such as the logic and key points in the argument, the length of the argument, and its grammatical complexity
2. Source characteristics: the characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message, suchas expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness
3. Target characteristics: the characteristics of the person receiving the message such as self esteem intelligence mood and other personal factors

Question 641

Moro reflex

Answer 641

In response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs and cries and then pulls the arms and legs back in

Lasts for 6 months

Question 642

defects in visual acuity

Answer 642

normal vision = emmetropia

myopia = too much curvature causes light to be bent too much and to be focused in front of the retina. Can be corrected by a concave lens which will cause the light rays to diverge slightly before they reach the cornea

hyperopia = farsightedness results from focusing of light behind the retina can be corrected by a convex which causes light to converge before reaching the retina

Presbyopia = an inability to focus results from loss of flexibility of lens which occurs with aging

Question 643

Stanley Milgram

Answer 643

Obedience experiment

The subject believes that the roles of the learner and teacher are determined randomly but this is actually rigged

The experimenter orders the teacher (subject) to give electric shocks to a learner who is actually a confederate

The teacher believes that the learner is actually receiving a shock for each wrong answer though in reality the confederate is playing pre-recorded sounds for each shock level

In Milgram’s first set of experiments, 65% of subjects kept administering shocks up to the highest level (450 volts)

Question 644

Cannon- Bard

Answer 644

stimulus -> physiological response

->emotion

Question 645

Neutral Stimulus

Answer 645

A stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response

Ex: Sound of the bell prior to the experiment

Question 646

Proprioceptor

Answer 646

Refers to awareness of self (body position) and isknown as your kinesthetic sense. Ex: muscle spindle (sensory organ specialized to detect muscle stretch)

Ex: golgi tendon organs and joint capsule receptors

Question 647

Conformity

Answer 647

This occurs when you adjust your behavior or thining based on the behavior of thinking of others

Question 648

What is medicalization?

a) A way to provide better access to healthcare for lower-income individuals.
b) A way to reduce the costs of medicine.
c) A social process whereby human conditions come to be defined and treated as medical conditions.
d) A medical process meant to standardize the practice of medicine.

Answer 648

c

Question 649

Ways that education promotes inequality

Answer 649

1. Hidden curriculum: unintentional lessons taught in school about norms, values, and beliefs
2. Teacher expectancy: expectations about how an individual/group will perform academically that impacts the teachers behavior toward the individual/group and results in individual/group conforming to expectations
3. Educational segregation and stratification: an unequal distribution of academic resources that reinforces class differences

Question 650

Herbert Blumer

Answer 650

• Contributed to understanding of collective behavior
• Identified four main forms of collective behavior
  1. Crowds
  2. Publics: group of individuals discussing a single issue
  3. Masses: group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media
  4. Social movements

Question 651

Infantile amnesia

Answer 651

Average age of earliest conscious memory is 3.5 years. Before this age, we are unable to remember much. Even though humans are unable to recall memories from this period, babies are still capable of learning and memory

Question 652

Latency

Answer 652

6-12 yrs

Erogenous: N/A (sexual feelings dormant)

Adult Fixation: N/A

Question 653

The limbic system

Answer 653

Function: motivated: sexual, maternal, eating

Homeostasis: energy, ion, water

Two mechanisms to regulate whole body

1. neural control –> Sympathetic nervous system (epine/NE)
2. Endocrine control –> Hypothalamic- PItuitary- Adrenal Axis (HPA)

Question 654

Positive punishment

Answer 654

Adds something undesirable to decrease likelihood of behavior happening again

examples:

spanks for getting bad grades

ticket/fine for driving too fast

Question 655

Gender identity

Answer 655

The extent to which one identifies with a particular gender; gender identity is often shaped early in life through social interactions

Question 656

Aristocratic governments

Answer 656

Controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualificationswith decision-making power

• Public is not involved in most political decisions
• Include aristocracies (those ruled by elite citizens like those with noble births) and meritocracies (those ruled by people with meaningful social contributions)

Question 657

Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 657

• There are two abnormal structure in the brain associated with Alzheimers
  1. Amyloid plaques: clumps of protein fragments that accumulate outside of cells
  2. Neurofibrillary tangles: clumps of altered proteins inside cells

It is the destruction and death of nerve cells that causes memory failure, personality changes, problems carrying out daily activities

Question 658

Persuasion

Answer 658

powerful way to influence what others think and do

Question 659

B.F. Skinner

Answer 659

The psychologist most associated with operant conditioning and conducted extensive experiments in this field:

-Invented an operant conditioning chamber (later dubbed a “Skinner box”) to test how reinforcement (food) and punishment (electric shocks) influenced animal behavior

Question 660

Social perception

Answer 660

The understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions

process responsible for our judgments and impressions about other people and allows us to recognize how others may impact us

Question 661

Difference between absolute poverty and relative poverty

Answer 661

Absolute poverty is defined by an inability to secure the basic necessities of life

Relative poverty is the inability to meet the average standard of living defined by a given society

Question 662

first wave feminism

Answer 662

1900; focused on women’s suffrage: the right to vote, to own property, to have equal rights within marriage and to work for wages

Question 663

Cultural Assimilation

Answer 663

Process by which a person or a group’s language and or culture come to resemble those of another group

Question 664

Church

Answer 664

Type of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society

Membership tends to occur by birth but most allow people to join

Well stipulated rules and regulations

Catholic Church

Question 665

Receiver Operating Characteristic

Answer 665

A graphical plot that demonstrates the hit rate vs the false alarm rate to graphically demonstrate a receiver’s accuracy

Question 666

Mental set

Answer 666

our tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that methods worked for us in the past

Question 667

Anxiety Disorders

Answer 667

Characteristics; Excessive fear or anxiety, avoidance behaviors, panic attacks

Specific Disorders: Phobias (agoraphobia), social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder

types of phobias: situational, natural env’t, blood/injection, injury, animal

Question 668

Negative reinforcement

Answer 668

Takes away something undesirable to increase likelihood of behavior happening again: examples;

• If all homework assignments completed, don’t have to take final
• Remove curfew for getting good grades

Question 669

Schacter and Singer

Answer 669

Simulus –> PHysiological response -> Cognitive interpretation -> emotion

Question 670

The Behaviorist Model of Language Acquisition

Answer 670

Infants are trained to learn language through operant conditioning

Question 671

Solomon Asch

Answer 671

-Conformity experiments

Subjects were first asked to determine which line was most similar to a comparison line

When subjects completed this task alone, they erred less than 1% of the time

Subjects were then placed in a room with several confederates

On the first few tests, all of the confederates responded correctly but then began choosing one of the incorrect lines

More than one third of subjects conformed to the group by answering incorrectly

Question 672

Cardinal Traits

Answer 672

Dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are often synonymous with these qualities Cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life

Question 673

Which of the following is an example of a catastrophic stressor?

Answer 673

A tornado wiping out a town is an example of a catastrophic stressor. Catastrophes are unpredictable, large-scale events that include natural disasters and wartime events. They are events that almost everyone would appraise as dangerous and stress-inducing. The repercussions of a catastrophic event are often felt for years after the event; a tornado wiping out a town would be an example of a catastrophic stressor. Even though divorce, the death of a child, and a diagnosis of a terminal illness might all seem catastrophic to the individual experiencing the stressor, these stressors would be considered significant life changes, because they are impacting only a relatively small number of people compared to the impact of a catastrophe.

Question 674

Person perception

Answer 674

Refers to the different processes thaat we use to form impressions of others including how we form the impressions and the different conclusions we make about other people based upon our impressions

Question 675

BIpolar 2 Disorder

Answer 675

Manic phases are less extreme

Person with bipolar 2 disorder has experience cyclic moods including at least one major depressive episode and one hypomaniac episode but has not met the criteria for a manic or mixed episode

Hypomaniac: for at least 4 days, a person has experienced an abnormally euphoric or irritable mood

Major depressive episode: person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

depressed mood, decreased interest, fatigue loss of energy, low self worth, insufficient sleep, impaired concentration, thoughts of death

Question 676

Prospective memory

Answer 676

Remembering to do things in the future

Old man is losing memory he will remeber to take his pills if there is a pill box out serving as a physical reminder