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Sara's MCAT Flashcards > Psych > Flashcards

Psych Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

What do parvocellular neurons specialize in?

A

parvocellular neurons specialize in picking up details (spatial resolution)

not great at detecting motion

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2
Q

What are hallucinogens?

A

drugs that distort perceptions, enhance sensations, and promote introspection

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3
Q

What is paternalism?

A

a pattern found with physicians who provide the treatment they believes is best without regard for the patient’s desires.

Like how parents make decisions on their children’s behalf, without necessarily giving them background information

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4
Q

What is representativeness heuristic?

A

Comparing people or groups to a prototypical example

estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds.

what’s typical

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5
Q

What is stage 2 of non-REM sleep?

A
  • theta waves
  • eye motion stops
  • heart rate & breathing slow down
  • memory consolidation
    • k-complexes and sleed spindles
      • bursts of activities
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6
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A

acts as a relay for information traveling through the brain and helping it get to where it needs to go

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7
Q

Where are magnocellular neurons and parvocellular neurons located?

A

the lateral geniculate nucleus

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8
Q

What is the function of ossicles in the ear?

A

ossicles amplify the vibrations of the tympanic membrane

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9
Q

What is the elaboration likelihood model?

A

focuses on attitude change and the factors that tend to promote it.

This model theorizes that a message may be processed either peripherally (shallowly) or centrally (in a more thorough manner).

Central processing tends to have a more long-lasting effects than peripheral processing, although both can alter attitude at least temporarily

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10
Q

What is the cocktail party effect?

A

The idea that we can “tune in” to a particular stimulus, like a name being said from across the room

background information is being processed to some degree even if its not the center of focus

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11
Q

What is a positive symptom?

A

positive symptoms are defined by their “presence” – an addition

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12
Q

What is a latent function?

A

Latent functions are those that are not specifically intended to occur. unconcious, unintended, and beneficial

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13
Q

What is social exchange theory?

A

individuals ground relationship decisions in their evaluation of the costs and benefits of maintaining each relationship

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14
Q

What is Neuropeptide Y?

A

A hormone that increases hunger

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15
Q

What is social-desirability bias?

A

the tendency for a study participant to alter their responses or selectively respond to a study questionnaire with responses that they think will make the experimenter like them more

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16
Q

Through what neural mechanism does caffeine work?

A

A mild central nervous system stimulant

promotes alertness by blocking adenosine receptors (a compound in the brain which promotes drowsiness)

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17
Q

What is an in-group?

A

categories that someone identifies as a member of

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18
Q

What muscle causes our pupils to dilate in response to a stimulus that triggers the fight or flight response?

A

pupillae muscle

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19
Q

What are 4 features of barbiturates and benzodiazepines?

A
  • depressants
  • increase GABA receptor activity (inhibitory neurons)
  • treat anxiety and insomnia
  • high risk of overdose, addiction, and withdrawal dangers
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20
Q

What is signal detection theory?

A

a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns and random patterns that distract from the information

For example, if you are incredibly focused on driving your car you might notice road hazards even if they present at a relatively low intensity. However, if you are sleepily driving your car, then a road hazard may need to present itself at a much higher intensity for your brain to correctly detect it and produce a “hit”

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21
Q

What is parallel processing?

A

The act of integrating multiple inputs (color, shape, motion, etc.) spontaenously

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22
Q

What is the major function of the enteric nervous system?

A

regulates activity of the gut

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23
Q

What is primary appraisal?

A

Cognitive appraisal of stress consists of two stages: primary and secondary

During primary appraisal, the person analyzes the potential stressor along with the surrounding environment to determine whether it represents a threat

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24
Q

A loss/decrease of what neurotransmitter leads to Parkinson’s disease?

A

Dopamine

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25
Q

What is the purpose of rhodopsin in the eye?

A

Rhodopsin are found in the rods of the eyes (along the retine) and they are pigment that responds to light and begins the process of phototrasnduction

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26
Q

What is a direct hormone?

A

any hormone that stimulates any cellular function in a target cell aside from hormone production

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27
Q

In psychology, what is the term affect used to describe?

A

affect is used to describe emotions

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28
Q

What is the difference between controlled processing and automatic processing?

A

Controlled processing: conscious focus on a task (often required of new skills)

Automatic processing: unconscious work on a task – doing things on autopilot

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29
Q

What are 4 areas that are regulated by the neurotransmitter, serotonin?

A
  1. mood
  2. appeptite
  3. sleep
  4. intestinal movements
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30
Q

What is the difference between bipolar disorder 1 and bipolar disorder 2?

A

Bipolar disorder 1 us characterized by the presence of at least one manic episode with or without depression (mania based)

Bipolar disorder 2 is characterized by the presence of major depression plus hypomania (depression based)

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31
Q

What is the treisman model of selective attention?

A

A modification of the Donald Broadbent model

Instead of information passing through an all or nothing buffer –

  • unattended information is attenuated (reduced in intensity)
  • intense or important information can come to attention
  • This model explains the cocktail party effect
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32
Q

What is a cohort study?

A

a subset of longitudinal studies,

in which a group of subjects is assembled according to some organizing principle - such as age or location - and followed up over time

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33
Q

What is heuristics?

A

problem solving methods and mental shortcuts

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34
Q

What are qualities of intrinsic motivation?

A

Intrinsic motivation is the act of doing something without any obvious external rewards

things that increase our sense of independence and autonomy help increase our intrinsic motivation

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35
Q

Why are we able to multitask two+ distinct tasks reasonably well but struggle when multitasking two+ similar tasks?

A

The Allport’s module resource theory

attention comes from distinc, specialized modules of the brain

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36
Q

What is expectancy theory?

A

an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.

i.e. A teacher lower their expectations of a student whom they view as lazy. After recognizing this, the student begins to work less hard because he believes he cannot be successful

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37
Q

What is the illness experience?

A

A social construct that describes how people conceive of and experience the phenomenon of becoming ill, navigating the decision of whether or not to seek care, and the experience of recovery

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38
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

compounds that bind to a receptor but do not cause a response

this prevents the receptors from being bound to an agonist and activating a response

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39
Q

What is a bureaucracy?

A

a rational, well-organized, impersonal, typically large adminstrative system

i.e. governments, hospitals, schools, corportations, and courts

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40
Q

Where is epinephrine and norepinephrine released?

A

Adrenal medulla

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41
Q

What are the four stages of Sort Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

A
  1. Sensorimotor <em>(0-2 years old)</em>
    1. acquiring language in earnest
  2. Preoperational <em>(2-7 years old)</em>
    1. represent objects symbolically, using words and images, and often take part in very vivid imaginative play based on those representations, but can only engage in very minimal logical thinking
  3. Concrete operational <em>(7-11 years old)</em>
    1. abstract reasoning, but only as applied to concrete objects
  4. Formal Operational (11-16+ years old)
    1. ability to fully engage in abstract logic is developed
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42
Q

What is observational learning?

A

learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes

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43
Q

Glutamate is what type of neurotransmitter?

A

excitatory neurotransmitter

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44
Q

What is the 4 major function of the midbrain?

A
  1. Motor control (i.e. eye movement)
  2. sleeping
  3. walking
  4. temperature regulation
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45
Q

What is the threshold of conscious perception?

A

The threshold for conscious perception is defined as the minimum stimulus required to consciously perceive the stimulus

The threshold to consciously perceive a stimulus is always greater than the absolute threshold, which is the intensity of a stimulus required to activate sensory receptors 50% of the time

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46
Q

Give two examples of opioid drugs

A
  • Morphine: derived from opium poppy
  • Heroin: synthetic morphine derivative
  • codeine
  • hydrocodone
  • oxycontin
  • fentanyl
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47
Q

What is the function of the vestibule of the ear? What two structures does it contain?

A

The vestibule senses linear acceleration

it contains two sub-structures: the utricle (horizontal plane) and the saccule (verticle plane)

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48
Q

What is the difference between linguistic determinism and linguistic relativism (The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis)?

A

Linguistic determinism is a stronger claim than linguistic relativism;

linguistic determinism states that language completely determines the way we think and see the world, rather than saying that language shapes the way we see the world (like in relativism)

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49
Q

What is a reference group?

A

a group that we compare ourselves to (even if we are not part of that group)

i.e. runners, med students, chefs, etc.

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50
Q

What is the patellar reflex?

A

an adult reflex

It occurs when the leg automatically jerks upward in response to a tap on the tendon under the kneecap.

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51
Q

What is eustress?

A

Eustress is stress that results from a positive circumstance, such as getting admitted to med school

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52
Q

What are dyssomnias?

A

Disorders impairing regular ability to fall or stay asleep (i.e. circadian rhythm sleep disturbance)

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53
Q

What is the major function of the neurotransmitter, epinephrine (adrenaline)?

A

acute stress response

(increase blood glucose, increase heart rate, increased muscle strength, etc.)

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54
Q

What is “ego-syntonic” behavior?

A

ego-syntonnic values or behaviors are those that are in line with a person’s goals or self-image

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55
Q

What is avoidance learning?

A

an individual learns a behavior or response to avoid a stressful or unpleasant situation.

The behavior is to avoid, or to remove oneself from, the situation

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56
Q

What is positron emission tomography (PET) scan?

A

visualizes brain activity

Works by radio labeling glucose, usually as fludeoxyglucose (FDG), which emits positrons as it decays

The areas where more decay occurs are those where more glucose is being metabolized (which corresponds to more intense neural activity)

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57
Q

What is the difference between sequential attention and simultaneous attention?

A

Sequential attention: switching back and forth between tasks (can be pretty quickly)

simultaneous attention: doing/paying attention to tasks at the same time

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58
Q

what is the function of the semicircular canals of the ear?

A

the semicircular canals sense rotational acceleration (when the head rotates)

the endolymph in the semicircular canals move and the hair cells in the semicircular canals resist that motion

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59
Q

What is the 7 major function of the pons and where is it located?

A
  1. sleep
  2. respiration
  3. swallowing
  4. taste
  5. bladder control
  6. balance
  7. relay station of signals to travel between the cerebellum, medulla, and the rest of the brain
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60
Q

What is secondary appraisal?

A

Cognitive appraisal of stress consists of two stages: primary and secondary

Secondary appraisal is the cognitive process that occurs when one is figuring out how to cope with a stressful event

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61
Q

What are the categories that personality disorders are broken down to?

A
  1. cluster A
    1. paranoid and schizotypal
  2. cluster B
    1. antisocial, narcissistic, histrionic, and boderline
  3. cluster C
    1. avoidant, dependent, and obsessive complusive (different from obsessive complusive disorder, OCD)
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62
Q

What is generalizability (external validity)?

A

Generalizability, also known as external validity, refers to the extent to which an experiments results are applicable to settings outside of the experiment

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63
Q

What is the palmar grasp reflex?

A

occurs when you stroke the palm of an infant’s hand and the infant’s fingers automatically close around the object.

This reflex disappears around 5 or 6 months of age

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64
Q

What is opponent process theory?

A

emotional changes in response to a steady exposure to the same scenario.

if a certain experience intially provokes an intense reaction, the opposite reaction tends to predominate.

human behaviors and emotional responses have two antagonistic components

exp. addiciton: inital pleasurable –> negative experiences of withdrawal
exp. skydiving: super scare at first –> having fun once you jump

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65
Q

What are 4 features of opiods?

A
  • depressants
  • cause dedation, sleepiness, respiratory depression
  • pain relief/euphoria
  • binds to opiod receptors on neurons
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66
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Internal validity refers to the extent to which a test’s results are “genuine” or accurate

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67
Q

What are the cons of using an MRI?

A
  • expensive
  • time consuming
  • involved for the patient
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68
Q

What is heroin and it’s neural mechanism?

A

An opiate/opioid (pharmacological endorphin)

Binds to opioid receptors on neurons

(this causes downregulation of endorphin production in the body)

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69
Q

What is Lazarus theory of emotion?

A

a cognitive interpretation must precede both the physiological response and emotion

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70
Q

Define attenuated

A

having been reduced in force, effect, or value.

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71
Q

What is the function of the cochlea of the ear?

A

it is a spiral shaped structure in the inner ear responsible for hearing

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72
Q

What is token economy?

A

A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers

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73
Q

What is the function of hair cells in the ear?

A

hair cells have sterocilia that move in response to sound waves and cause neurotransmitter release

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74
Q

What is anhedonia?

A

A subjective self-report of feeling a “lack of pleasure” when partaking in normally plasurable activities

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75
Q

What is the difference between schizoid and schizotypal?

A

Schizoid: emotional aloofness and social isolation

Schizotypal: discomfort in social contexts, mixed with “weird” delusions or beliefs, conspiracies, etc.

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76
Q

What neurotransmitter is associated with depression?

A

low levels of serotonin

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77
Q

What is inattentional blindness?

A

Direct attention causes people to miss things happening in the background

(like the invisible gorilla experiment – count the number of passes thrown between the basketball players: so busy counting that we completely miss the gorilla walking through the players)

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78
Q

What is motion parallax?

A

motion parallax describes the fact that objects that are close to us move further across our visual field than objects far from us

this is one of the cues that we use to perceive depth

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79
Q

What is the HPA axis?

A

The HPA axis (hypothalamic–pituitary–adrena) involves and promotes multiple negative feedback systems, as several downstream hormones can inhibit release of their tropic (upstream) hormones in order to avoid overproduction

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80
Q

Name four drugs that are depressants?

A
  1. alcohol
  2. barbiturates
  3. benzodiazepines
  4. opioids
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81
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

Sensory information, typically visual or auditory, passes through sensory memory, which is short-lived

If the information is particularly relevant or otherwise attended to, it can move to short-term memory before being stored in one’s long-term memory

sensory memory is not a type of short-term memory unless sufficient attention is paid to it

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82
Q

What is gestalt’s principle of continuity?

A

Continuity is a Gestalt principle that suggests that when we see visual information arranged in a continuous row or line, we may perceive it as a line instead of as individual objects

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83
Q

What is social constructionism?

A

accounts for the way people jointly create understandings of the world based on interactions with each other

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84
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative controls?

A
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85
Q

What are 8 characteristics of REM sleep?

A
  1. Quick bursts of eye movement (rapid eye movement)
  2. similar brain waves to beta waves/awakeness
  3. very little muscle movement (atonia)
  4. irregular breathing and heart rate
  5. majority of dreaming takes place during this stage
  6. REM stages get longer as the night progresses
  7. greater total REM sleep stages = more restful
  8. REM rebound
    1. after missing sleep, you “catch up” on REM sleep the next night
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86
Q

What is conversion disorder?

A

conversion disorders involve sudden sensory or motor impairments (blindness, paralysis, difficulty swallowing) following a period of stress

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87
Q

What is the function of the perilymph?

A

It transmits vibrations to the basilar membrane

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88
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

incorrectly estimating the probability of an event because of the availability of knowledge of the event, such as being afraid of a flood after hearing of one in a different state

what most recently comes to mind

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89
Q

What is the g factor in psych/soc?

A

general intelligence

underlying capacity that drives performance in many fields

can be heritable for up to 50% (genetics, environment etc.)

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90
Q

What is problem-solving dream theory?

A

Problem-solving dream theory includes the hypothesis that we attempt to solve problems while dreaming without being limited by the rules of reality

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91
Q

What is crystallized intelligence?

A

Crystallized intelligence involves the use of previously-learned knowledge, skills, and experience

reflected in a person’s general knowledge, vocabulary, and reasoning based on acquired information

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92
Q

What is a manifest function?

A

the intended function of social policies, processes, or actions that are consciously and deliberately designed to be beneficial in their effect on society

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93
Q

List the following cells in order that they are activated in the visual pathway:

amacrine cells

ganglion cells

bipolar cells

photoreceptors

horizontal cells

A
  1. photoreceptors (rods/cones)
  2. horizontal cells
    1. integrate input, inhibiting photoreceptors and helping the eye to adjust to high versus low light conditions
  3. bipolar cells
  4. amacrine cells
  5. ganglion cells
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94
Q

What is gestalt’s principle of proximity?

A

Proximity is a Gestalt principle which suggests that objects which are close together are seen by our brain as related

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95
Q

How is the hypothalamus connected to the anterior pituitary?

A

a portal system

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96
Q

What is a polysomnopgraphy?

A

A sleep study measuring multiple physiological parameters

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97
Q

What is Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?

A

a physiological response is interpreted in context to yield an emotional response

the physiological response precedes its associated cognitive emotional response

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98
Q

What neurological patterns are seen in alpha waves?

A

Relaxed, calm, meditation

Drowsiness, fatigued

(closing our eyes, but not falling asleep)

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99
Q

What is a cross-sectional study?

A

an observational study in which measurements and analysis are done at one time on a group of people

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100
Q

What is korsakoff syndrome and its symptoms?

A

psychiatric condition associated with chronic alcoholism

  • anterograde and retrograde amnesia
  • confabulation (invented memories)
  • Lack of vitamine B1 (thiamine)

anterograde: events starting <em>after</em> the syndrome develops

retrograde: events before the syndrome develops

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101
Q

What is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?

A

It uses strong magnetic fields to image structures within the body

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102
Q

how is information from the left and right visual fields transmitted to the retina and to the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

A
  • the left side of the retina in each eye sees the right visual field and vice versa
  • the left visual field is processed in the right hemisphere of the brain and vice versa
    • (left side of retina goes to left side of brain, right side of retina goes to right side of brain)
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103
Q

What is an agonist?

A

a compound that activates a certain receptor, causing a response

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104
Q

What is the major responsibility of the forebrain?

A

advanced functions like reasoning

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105
Q

What is the primary function of the nucleus accumbens?

A

encoding of information related to addictive/rewarding behavior

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106
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

a study which assesses how certain variables change over time

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107
Q

What is a tropic hormone?

A

any hormone that stimulates an endocrine gland to produce another hormone

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108
Q

What are Howard Gardner’s eight distinct forms of intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligences

A
  1. bodily-kinesthetic
  2. visual-spatial
  3. interpersonal
  4. intrapersonal
  5. naturalistic
  6. logical-mathematical
  7. musical-rhythmic
  8. verbal-linguistic intelligence
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109
Q

what is the function of the basilar membrane of the ear?

A

the basilar membrane is where hair cells are attached

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110
Q

What is the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder?

A

Exhibit at least 5 of the criteria for MDD persisting for at least a 2-week period

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111
Q

What is the traditional “first-line treatment” for schizophrenia?

A

Neuroleptics

Neuroleptics are dopamine antagonists with cognitive side-effects

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112
Q

What is the difference between role strain and role conflict?

A

Role strain: strain brought onby mulitiple responsibilites from one role

Role conflict: difficulty brought on by trying to balance multiple, different roles

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113
Q

The reticular formation (part of brain stem) is most closely associated with ____?

A

alertness (conciousness)

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114
Q

What do EOGs (electrooculograms) measure?

A

EOGs measure eye movement

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115
Q

What is retinal disparity?

A

Binocular cues are the aspects of an image which change when we see it from our right eye versus when we see it from our left eye.

An object might appear closer to you when you shut your left eye, and farther when you shut your right eye. The difference in an object between your two eyes is the “retinal disparity”.

Your brain processes both individual images and turns them into one, cohesive image, which you finally experience

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116
Q

What does the hormone thyroxine do?

A

regulate metabolism

secreted by thyroid

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117
Q

What is the primary function of the parietal lobe?

A

receiving and processing sensory input

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118
Q

What three things protects the spinal cord?

A
  1. fluid (cerebrospinal fluid)
  2. membranous meninges
  3. strong bones (vertebrae).
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119
Q

What are the 6 major glands of the endocrine system?

A
  1. hypothalamus
  2. anterior pituitary
  3. posterior pituitary
  4. thyroid gland
  5. adrenals
  6. ovaries/testes
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120
Q

What is the flat effect?

A

a negative symptom where a person has no outward reaction to an emotional stimulus

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121
Q

Where in the sleep pattern do we see theta waves?

A

Stage 1 and Stage 2 of non-REM sleep

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122
Q

What is the dichotic listening task?

A

Used to investigate selective attention

  • Subjects are given headphones and asked to focus on one ear (i.e. the right).
  • different words are simulatenously fed through each side/ear of the headphones.
  • When asking listeners to recall the words, they tend to only remember the words coming in from the side of the ear they were told to pay attention to
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123
Q

What is stage 3 of non-REM sleep?

A
  • deep sleep
  • characterized by delta waves (slow-wave, low frequency, high amplitude)
  • important for memory processing
  • brain recovers from daily activites
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124
Q

What is the nativist theory of language development?

A

The nativist theory of language development states that all humans have an innate language acquisition device that allows us to learn language similarly

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125
Q

What is a fMRI?

A

image both structure and function

A method that relies on the difference in magnetic properties between oxygenated hemoglobin (arterial blood) and deoxygenated hemoglobin (venous blood) to visualize blood flow.

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126
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

A grouping of various structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation (reward or goal seeking behavior)

hippocampus – memory and learning

amygdala – basic emotions

thalamus – sensory input directed to higher brain

hypothalamus – connects the CNS with the endocrine system

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127
Q

What is the interactionist theory of language development?

A

The interactionist theory of language development states that language is learned through a series of interactions with others

For example, a child may learn that calling another child “stupid” will make them feel bad and learn that this is a rude thing to say. So, rather than the cut and dry reward and punishment from behaviorism, interactionists place a lot of emphasis on human interaction

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128
Q

What is gestalt’s principle of similarity?

A

Similarity is the principle which suggests that our brain groups objects which look similar together

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129
Q

Where is cortisol released?

A

Adrenal cortex

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130
Q

What are the two major functions of the neurotransmitter, dopamine?

A
  1. involved in the reward pathways (and addiction)
  2. mediates motor function
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131
Q

What is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)?

A

a tropic hormone released by the hypothalamus which acts on the anterior pituitary

It causes the anterior pituitary to secrete the tropic hormones LH and FSH, which exert downstream effects on reproduction

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132
Q

What is the primary role of the prefrontal cortex?

A

the part of the brain responsible for rational decision making as well as motivational and impulse control

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133
Q

What is a moderating variable?

A

A variable that affect the intensity of an observed relationship between two variables

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134
Q

What is cognitive dream theory?

A

The cognitive dream theory posits that dreams are just stream-of-consciousness scenarios that are randomly ordered by the dreamer’s brain

dreams reflect cognitive structures that play a role in our everyday lives, such as conceptions of self, others, and the world.

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135
Q

What is ghrelin and where is it secreted/acting on?

A

a hormone that stimulates appetite, increases food intake and promotes fat storage

it is secreted by the stomach and acts on the hypothalamus

136
Q

The prefrontal cortex is likely ______ in a person with PTSD

A

The prefrontal cortex is likely under-active in a person with PTSD

137
Q

What is the Donald Broadbent model of selective attention?

A

As our brain tries to navigate an influx of stimuli, our brain:

  1. enters basic sensory information into a sensory buffer
  2. From the sensory buffer, the mind selects something to focus on and process
  3. all the other information decays in the sensory buffer
138
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

a third variable that affects both the independent variable and the dependent variable in a way that can potentially obscure the true relationship between them

139
Q

Is variable ratio reinforcement best for maintaining a behavior or initially acquiring a new behavior?

A

maintaining a behavior

continuous reinforcement is better for initally acquiring a new behavior

140
Q

What is an out-group?

A

categories that someone does NOT identify as a member of

141
Q

What do magnocellular neurons specialize in?

A

magnocellular neurons specialize in detecting motion (temporal resolution)

not good at picking up details

142
Q

What is leptin and where is it secreted?

A

a hormone that increases levels of satiety (i.e. decrease hunger)

secreted by adipose tissue

143
Q

What is the behaviorism theory of language development?

A

The behaviorism theory of language development states that language learning is like any other behavior; it is learned through reinforcement and punishment

an example: a young child would learn to say “eat” when they are hungry because every time they say it they are rewarded with food

144
Q

What neurological patterns are seen in Beta waves?

A

Awake, normal, alert consciousness

145
Q

What is Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

A

a stimulus simultaneously gives rise to a physiological reaction and a separate emotional response

146
Q

What is Wernicke’s area?

A

the comprehension of language

located in the temporal lobe

147
Q

What is the major function of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine?

A

acute stress response

148
Q

What are Freud’s manifest dream content and latent dream content?

A

manifest: surface-level details in dreams (i.e. showing up late to a final exam while only in your underwear and you didn’t study)

Latent: underlying meaning (i.e. underlying anxiety over tests, school, and professional success)

149
Q
A
150
Q

What are the two different systems found in the autonomic system?

A
  1. sympathetic (fight or flight)
  2. parasympathetic (rest and digest)
151
Q

What is distal stimuli?

A

When stimuli exist out in the world and a person is not detecting them (e.g. light that’s not being detected by our photoreceptors), they are called “distal stimuli”

152
Q

What receptors do marijuana bind to?

A

binds with cannabinoid receptors in the brain

153
Q

What is the major function of the cerebellum and where is it located?

A

responsible for coordinated movement

located in the hindbrain

154
Q

What is rational choice theory?

A

Rational choice theory posits that each individuals’ actions are based on an objective evaluation of cost versus reward

people choose the action that yields the greatest reward to themselves relative to cost

155
Q

What is escape learning?

A

person or animal acquiring a response that allows it to terminate an undesirable stimulus

If the shocking in a cage continued until the chinchilla pressed a switch or left the cage, this would be a form of escape learning

156
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Construct validity tells us how well a test measures what it is supposed to test

157
Q

What is feature detection?

A

Feature detection is our ability to respond to specific elements of a stimulus such as color, shape, or motion

158
Q

What are the three major regions of the brain?

A
  1. forebrain
  2. midbrain
  3. hindbrain
159
Q

What is Operant conditioning?

A

Operant conditioning is the process of changing the frequency of behaviors by providing either reinforcement or punishment immediately after the behavior was performed

160
Q

What is instinctual drift?

A

instinctual drift is the tendency for an animal to return to a biologically fixed pattern of behavior (instinct), away from a previously learned behavior.

161
Q

What does an EMG measure?

A

muscle activity

162
Q

Give three examples of hallucinogens

A
  • LSD
  • ketamine
  • peyote
  • psilocybin (mushrooms)
  • PCP
163
Q

What is the major function of the hindbrain?

A

basic functions like breathing

164
Q

What is Freud’s wish fulfillment dream content?

A

Dreams that have a resolution of a repressed conflict

(allows a person to visualized the satisfaction of a desire)

165
Q

What is psychophysical discrimination testing?

A

Researchers test whether research subjects can tell the difference between two stimuli and then link those findings to the actual physical properties of the stimuli being studied

166
Q

In psych/soc what is power?

A

the ability of someone or something to force someone or something else to do something

167
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

logic and reasoning are applied to novel situations

168
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is what type of neurotransmitter?

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

169
Q

What determines a sound’s intensity?

A

a sound’s intensity is determine by the sound wave’s amplitude

louder sounds cause higher-amplitude vibrations on the tympanic membrane, and quieter sounds cuase lower-amplitude vibrations

170
Q

Through what neural mechanism does MDMA (ecstasy/molly) work?

A

A stimulant

Promotes release of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

171
Q

what is conduction aphasia?

A

Conduction aphasia involves damage to the arcuate fasciculus, which connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s area.

People with this condition would have difficulty repeating something they are told, even if they understand what the other person is saying

172
Q

What are parasomnia?

A

sleep disorders that involve abnormal behavior during sleep

173
Q

What is activation-synthesis theory in dreams?

A

A theory holding that there is a causal connection between neural activation and dream content

174
Q
A

Sound waves cause the hair cells to move around in the endolymph, and that swaying movement of the stereocilia opens up ion channels that let small positively-charged ions flow into the cell.

This, in turn, triggers an influx of calcium ions through voltage-gated calcium channels.

This Ca2+ influx then causes the release of neurotransmitters at the other end of the cell, beginning the transmission of neural signals.

These signals are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve, which is also sometimes referred to as the auditory nerve.

Auditory signals are passed through several different structures in the brain, including the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus.

Finally, these signals are processed by the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.

175
Q

What is the babinski reflex?

A

occurs when an object is dragged along the sole of the foot, causing the big toe to curl upward and the other toes to fan outward.

This reflex is normally limited to infants

When it presents in adults, it usually indicates a neurological disorder

176
Q

What is the function of otoliths in the ear?

A

Otoliths are CaCO3- containing structures in the utricle and saccule that help stimulate hair cells

177
Q

What is the function of pinna in the ear?

A

pinna funnels incoming sound waves into the external auditory canal

178
Q

What is a utilitarian organizations?

A

organizations that people join to make money

i.e. employees of a company

179
Q

What is the major function of medulla oblongata and where is it located?

A

control autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

located in the hindbrain

180
Q

What is content validity?

A

Content validity refers to the extent to which a design assesses the full scope of content that researchers intend to measure

181
Q

What is symbolic interactionism?

A

describes the ways in which communication between people helps create and maintain shared meanings

examines communication and other forms of interaction between people, focusing on how these interactions give rise to shared meanings concerning language, behavior, objects, institutions, and other elements of society

182
Q

What is James-Lange theory of emotion

A

a physiological response causes an emotion.

183
Q

What is the purpose of the iris of the eye?

A

the iris is the pigmented part of the eye that prevents any unwanted light from passing through

184
Q

List the four principals of medical ethics

A
  1. beneficence (acting in patient’s best interest)
  2. nonmaleficence (do no harm)
  3. respect for patient autonomy
  4. justice (equal and fair)
185
Q

What is conflict theory?

A

a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources

social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity

186
Q

What is melatonin and where is it generated?

A

It is a hormone generated in the pineal gland

induces sleep as part of circadian rhythms

187
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

The misinformation effect refers to when new information influences our recall or perception of previous experiences

188
Q

What is the sick role and its expectations?

A

The sick role reflects a social consensus that it’s not someone’s fault that he/she becomes sick.

That sickness can make a person exempt from normal social responsibilities but they are expected to behave in certain ways (follow doctor’s instruction, take steps to get better, etc.)

189
Q

What are the 5 principles of Gestalt’s Principles of Grouping (perception)?

A
190
Q

Through what neural mechanism does cocaine work?

A

a stimulant

it blocks the reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine (this causes a buildup in the brain)

191
Q

What is histrionic behavior?

A

a ego-dystonic behavior

A person with histrionic personality disorder seeks attention, talks dramatically with strong opinions, is easily influenced, has rapidly changing emotions, and thinks relationships are closer than they are.

192
Q

What is growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)?

A

a tropic hormone released by the hypothalamus and acts on the anterior pituitary.

It causes the anterior pituitary to release of growth hormone (GH) which has downstream effects on cell growth and metabolism

193
Q

What is a negative symptom?

A

negative symptoms are defined by the “absence” of somethings

194
Q

What are the 6 types of long term memory?

A
195
Q

What is acquiescence bias (self-report bias)?

A

the tendency to respond “yes” or “I agree” to questions

To limit this form of bias, researchers should design their questions carefully, which is often accomplished in part by asking multiple questions that are the opposite of each other.

196
Q

In a normal distribution, what percentage of data is found within 1 SD of the mean and within 2 SD of the mean

A
197
Q

What is the difference between reliabiltiy and validity?

A

Both deal with the experimental procedures as a whole

198
Q

Through what neural mechanism does alcohol work?

A

A depressant

Enhances the actions of GABA receptors (inhibitory receptors)

199
Q

What is an oligarchy?

A

the government is run by a small group of individuals who share some characteristic such as wealth, nobility, or military power

200
Q

What is the 2 major function of the neurotransmitter, endorphins?

A
  1. supresses pain
  2. produces euphoria
201
Q

What brain structures are components of the mesolimbic pathway (reward pathway)?

A
  1. nucleus accumbens
  2. ventral tegmental area
  3. olfactory tubule
  4. medial forebrain bundle
202
Q

Where is oxytocin stored and secreted?

A

the posterior pituitary

203
Q

What is criterion validity?

A

Criterion validity refers to the extent to which a test correlates with an established “criterion” or existing measure

204
Q

What is signal detection theory?

A

a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns and random patterns that distract from the information

the combined effects of perceptual processing and sensory detection can cause us to correctly or incorrectly detect stimuli in the environment

205
Q

What is considered the “bridge” between the nervous (autonomic) and endocrine systems?

A

The hypothalamus

206
Q

What is ACTH responsible for?

A

a factor that stimulates cortisol production

a hormone made by the pituitary gland

207
Q

What is stage 1 of non-REM sleep?

A

characterized by theta waves

light sleep

slow eye movement

208
Q

What is the difference between the bottom-down and top-down approaches to perception?

A

Bottom-up processing occurs when our brains use information gathered from our senses to construct a bigger picture of the world,

whereas top-down processing occurs when our brain constructs a model of the world (based on past experiences and future expectations) and later fills it in with sensory information.

209
Q

What is stratification?

A

Stratification reflects differing access to social and/or economic resources based on socioeconomic status

210
Q

what are the two different nerves found in the somatic nervous system?

A
  1. afferent nerves (sensory)
  2. efferent nerves (motor) – the effect

SAME: Sensory-Afferent Motor-Efferent

211
Q

What is a coercive organization?

A

an organization that people do not choose to be part of but have to anyway

i.e. prison, military draft, etc

212
Q

What is Galton’s idea of hereditary genius?

A

Galton, in Hereditary Genius (1869), proposed that a system of arranged marriages between men of distinction and women of wealth would eventually produce a gifted race (laid foundations in eugenics – BAD)

Think g factor (general intelligence) which is heritable up to 50%

213
Q

What is McDonaldization?

A

an organizational approach that focuses on efficiency, calculability, uniformity, and technological control

214
Q

What is the expectancy-value theory?

A

motivation for a given behavior or action is determined by two factors:

  1. expectancy, ie, how probable it is that a wanted (instrumental) outcome is achieved through the behavior or action
  2. value, ie, how much the individual values the desired outcome
215
Q

What is the ventral tegmental area (VTA)?

A

a collection of dopaminergic neurons which play a role in goal-directed behavior

involved in the limbic system

216
Q

What are the three major functions of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine?

A
  1. activation of muscle contraction
  2. communication signals between the CNS and the autonomic nervous system
  3. sends signals from the parasympathetic nervous system to their targets
217
Q

What are the three different systems found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A
  1. autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
  2. somatic nervous system (voluntary)
  3. Enteric nervous system (gut activity)
218
Q

match the descriptions to their corresponding location on the basilar membrane: either base or apex

A
  1. base
  2. base
  3. base
  4. apex
  5. apex
  6. apex
219
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a test predicts a later score on some other test

220
Q

What is operationalization?

A

Operationalization is the process of defining how a particular variable will be measured

An example would be defining caffeine consumption as the number of milligrams of caffeine consumed per day, on average, over a six-month period

221
Q

What is authority?

A

the recognized, “official” legitimacy of one entity to order another to do something

222
Q

What is the prodromal period of schizophrenia?

A

prodromal means the period between the appearance of initial symptoms and the full development of a rash or fever

the early stages of schizophrenia are characterized by attenuated (mild) symptoms

223
Q

What is causation bias?

A

thinking that events closely related in time share a causal link. Corrleation does not mean causation

i.e taking medication and your fever drops shortly after. Not necessarily true that the pills caused it. Could be that the fever just naturally ran its course

224
Q

what is the function of the oval window of the ear?

A

the oval window connects the middle ear to the inner ear

225
Q

What is reappraisal?

A

The act of re-evaluating one’s thoughts in response to a stressful situation is called “Cognitive Reappraisal”

226
Q

what is the difference between a value and a belief?

A

a belief reflects what someone thinks is true (i.e. more people are walking to work because they wannt to help the environment)

a value reflects how someone thinks the world should work (i.e. people should walk to work rather than drive cars to help the environment)

227
Q

What is the primary function of the amygdala?

A

it is essential for normal emotional function

228
Q

What is change blindness?

A

The failure to notice changes that take place

229
Q

Where are LH and FSH released from?

A

The anterior pituitary

<em>which is stiumlated by GnRH hormone</em>

230
Q

What is Broca’s Area?

A

the center for speech production in the brain

lies in the left hemisphere of the brain

231
Q

What is the JND (just-noticeable-difference)?

A

The just noticeable difference (JND), also known as the difference threshold, is the minimum level of stimulation that a person can detect 50 percent of the time

Weber’s law predicts that this change will be a proportion of the original stimulus, and that this proportion is constant.

232
Q

What is shadowing?

A

Subjects are asked to repeat words as soon as they hear them

repeating words instantly

233
Q

What is Concurrent validity?

A

Concurrent validity measures how well a new test compares to an well-established test

234
Q

What are adaptive traits?

A

Traits which promote the reproductive success of an organism

235
Q

What are the three different types of cones found in the eye?

A
  1. those specialized in blue light (420 nm)
  2. those specialized in red light (560nm)
  3. those specialized in green light (530m)

Remember: Cone –> Color, details, conventrated in the fovea

Rods –> low-light, peripheral

236
Q

What is the absolute threshold?

A

the smallest level of stimulus that can be detected, usually defined as at least half the time

237
Q

What is the arcuate fasciculus?

A

it connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s area (frontal lobe – speech; and temporal lobe – comprehension)

238
Q

What is a main tenet of functionalism?

A

the stability of a society is grounded in the interdependent coordination of different elements of society

239
Q

What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A

Identifies the functioning of different regions of the brain (not structure)

It measures brain actvity through electrodes placed on the scalp

240
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

Iconic memory refers to our ability to retain a memory of a detailed image for a short period

a type pf sensory memory

241
Q

What is a case control study?

A

an observational study that involves comparing individuals with a certain quality of interest – such as a disease - to those without that quality

242
Q

What is the difference between addiction and dependence?

A

Addiction is a compulsive behavior that repeated engages reward pathway and promotes behavior despite negative consequences

Dependence is the absense of drugs causing withdrawal symptoms

243
Q

What is a normative organization?

A

an organization that people join because there is shared ideals or ethical goals

i.e. volunteering at a soup kitchen

244
Q

What is role engulfment?

A

the expansion of a role that dominates someone’s life

closely related to what one does with their time/energy

245
Q

What is the function of the tympanic membrane in the ear?

A

it vibrates at a corresponding frequency to the sound waves that hit it

246
Q

What are the three major types of organizations?

A
  1. Utilitarian
  2. Coercive
  3. Normative
247
Q

How is the hypothalamus connected to the posterior pituitary?

A

via neurons

248
Q

what is serial memory processing?

A

a perceptual strategy where we consciously look in one place after another, analyzing stimuli in order

249
Q

Where is prolactin secreted?

A

anterior pituitary

250
Q

What are the cons of using a CT scan?

A
  • x-rays involve a low dose of ionizing radiation
  • not as good as imaging soft structures like in MRI
251
Q

What is adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and where is it secreted?

A

a tropic hormone that acts on the adrenal glands to cause gluco- and mineralocorticoid secretion (stress hormones)

secreted by the anterior pituitary

252
Q

A person with PTSD would have ____ ability to control emotional outbursts and regulate motor control

A

A person with PTSD would have reduced ability to control emotional outbursts and regulate motor control

253
Q

What is aphasia?

A

loss of ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage.

254
Q

What is the Moro reflex?

A

a startle reflex that occurs in response to a loud noise or sudden movement. It is only observed in infants

255
Q

What is gestalt’s principle of pranganz?

A

Pranganz is the principle which suggests we default to seeing a simplified image

256
Q

What is a computed tomography (CT) scan?

A

Involves taking x-ray photographs in 360 degrees and assembling the resulting images with the help of computer programs to view structures three-dimensionally as a series of two-dimensional slices

257
Q

Where in the brain is the amygdala located?

A

deep within the temporal lobe

There are two amygdalae in each hemisphere of the brain

258
Q

What is instrumental motivation?

A

Instrumental motives are drives or strong desires for increased self-esteem, which may come in the form of relationships or rewards

259
Q

What is expressive motivation?

A

expressive motives are displayed when an individual wants to take charge of his or her identity

260
Q

What is impression managment and what are the two types of motivation that can explain this?

A

an effort to change or influence other people’s perceptions of them

Impression management can be explained by two main sets of motives: instrumental and expressive

261
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Proactive interference involves the interference of information from long term memory with new information

it requires information, previously stored in long term memory, which can impede the learning of new information

262
Q

What is anomie?

A

Anomie refers to a lack of attachment to social norms, which can result in a breakdown in the connection between individuals and their community

263
Q

The periphery of the retina contains a higher density of what?

A

light sensitive rods

this results in a clearer image of a dimly lit object with peripheral vision in the dark

264
Q

How does sociology define an organization?

A

Sociology defines an organization as a (relatively) formal group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted action to achieve a common purpose.

265
Q

In George Herbert Mead’s theory, what does “I” represent?

A

I = the response of the individual to the “me”. I thinks about what those
things mean. aka attitudes of others.

The spontaneous, less socialized
component of the Self.

the “I” is the spontaneous and autonomous part of the self

266
Q

spatial inequality

A

Spatial inequality is the unequal distribution of resources and services across different areas or locations, such as healthcare, welfare, public services, household income and infrastructures

267
Q

What is demographic transition?

A

Demographic transition is a mode that changes in a country’s population-population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low birth rate/death rates (fertility/mortality) which stabilizes the population

This stabilization often occurs in industrialized/developed countries

268
Q

what is the world system theory?

A

World Systems Theory posits that there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited

Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.

Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry.

Semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.

269
Q

verbal input in the right ear travel to the left or right auditory cortex?

A

right ear –> left auditory cortex (wernicke’s area/broca’s area in left hemisphere of brain)

left ear –> right auditory cortex

270
Q

What are agents of socialization?

A

popular culture, schools, family, and religion

271
Q

What is the state dependency effect?

A

State-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when cues relating to emotional and physical state are the same during encoding and retrieva

272
Q

What is the dual-coding effect?

A

Dual-coding refers to the retrieval advantage of verbal items that are imageable. These items are encoded with both a verbal code and a visual code, which benefits their retrievability.

273
Q

What is the misinformation effect?

A

The misinformation effect is the tendency for information received after an event to interfere with one’s memory of the original happenings

Misinformation effects refer to memory errors (usually errors of commission), in which some information introduced and encoded after the target information is retrieved along with some portions of the target information.

In such cases, the subject usually has trouble identifying which retrieved information had been originally encoded and which information was introduced subsequently, a situation known as source confusion

274
Q
A
275
Q

What are the 6 universal emotions?

A

The universal emotions include

fear,

anger,

surprise,

happiness,

disgust,

sadness

276
Q

What are neuroleptics?

A

Antipsychotics, also known as neuroleptics, are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis, principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of other psychotic disorders

a drug that depresses nerve functions; a major tranquilizer

277
Q

What factors affect political socialization?

A

Gender,

religion,

faith,

media,

and other factors such as race, geography, and age all affect the political socialization of an individual.

278
Q

In Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, how would you characterize the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional stages?

A

Preconventional: individual is primarily concerned with the consequences of actions

Conventional: respect of societal rules and the maintenance of social order.

Postconventional: abstract ideas of morality and the observance of universal human ethics.

279
Q

What is differential association theory?

A

Differential association is when an individual bases their behaviors on association and interaction with others.

This is most often studied in the analysis of learned deviance such as learned criminal behavior.

280
Q

What is the leraning theory of language development?

A

The learning theory of language acquisition suggests that children learn a language much like they learn to tie their shoes or how to count; through repetition and reinforcement.

the learning theory of language development states that language is learned via operant conditioning

281
Q

What is the resource model of attention?

A

The resource model of attention proposes that we are capable of dividing our attention (or “multitasking”) as long as our total attentional resources exceed those required by the combined tasks at hand.

282
Q

What is the difference between identity and self-concept?

A

Identity can be defined as our relationship within categories or groups of people. For example, one person can have a racial or ethnic identity (“I am an African-American”), a gender identity (“I am male”), and a class identity (“I am a member of the middle class”)

self-concept refers to a person’s entire collection of conscious ideas about himself

283
Q

what is REM-rebound?

A

REM rebound is the lengthening and increasing frequency and depth of rapid eye movement sleep which occurs after periods of sleep deprivation.

When people have been prevented from experiencing REM, they take less time than usual to attain the REM state.

284
Q

what is social capital?

A

Social capital is “the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively”

the benefits provided by social networks

285
Q

What are discriminating stimuli?

A

stimulus presented before a reinforcer/punishment, to signal availability and increase probability of responding

286
Q

What is external motivation?

A

“external motivation” means that your motivation to attain your goal comes from a source outside yourself.

i.e. peer pressure

287
Q

What is extrinsic motivation?

A

Extrinsic motivation is directed by external rewards from the environment. The person is only willing to do the task because it offers some sort of reward, such as receiving money, food, or the avoidance of punishment

288
Q

what is intrinsic motivation?

A

Intrinsic motivation is directed by internal rewards or one’s internal desire to do something for its own sake.

The activity is inherently rewarding, such as watching your favorite Netflix show, or challenging, such as the career in medicine you are excited about.

Intrinsic motivation leads to high productivity and high quality of work because the person is invested in the task itself and not the rewards that come from it.

289
Q

What is Carl Roger’s concept of incongruence?

A

Incongruence refers to the gap between a person’s actual self and ideal self.

290
Q

what is autonomous motivation?

A

Autonomous motivation is defined as engaging in a behavior because it is perceived to be consistent with intrinsic goals or outcomes and emanates from the self. In other words, the behavior is self-determined.

291
Q

What is base rate fallacy?

A

incorrectly judging a situation, like not considering all the information at disposal

The base rate fallacy, also called base rate neglect or base rate bias, is a type of fallacy in which people tend to ignore the base rate in favor of the individuating information. Base rate neglect is a specific form of the more general extension neglect.

292
Q

What is observer bias?

A

observer bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive or record in a study.

It usually affects studies when observers are aware of the research aims or hypotheses. This type of research bias is also called detection bias or ascertainment bias

293
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

Functional fixedness refers to people’s tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, which can inhibit solving problems.

294
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

The confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

295
Q

What is the overconfidence effect?

A

Overconfidence effect refers to the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.

296
Q

What is fundamental attribution error?

A

The fundamental attribution error refers to an individual’s tendency to attribute another’s actions to their character or personality

i.e. he fell because he’s clumsy (not because the floor is slippery)

297
Q

What is the difference between self serving bias and fundamental attribution error?

A

Self Serving: Environment causes my failure, Self causes my success.

Attribution error: Environment causes their success, self causes their failure

298
Q

What is the actor observer bias?

A

actor-observer bias talks about our tendency to explain someone’s behavior based n the internal factors while explaining our own behaviors on external factors.

i.e. if someone trips and falls, we might call them clumsy or careless. On the other hand, if we fell on the exact same spot, we are more likely to blame the ground for being uneven.

this is different from fundamental attribution error in that FAE is strictly about attribution of others’ behaviors. One’s own behaviors are irrelevant in this case. but AOB includes ones own behavior

299
Q

What is labeling theory?

A

Labeling theory suggests that when individuals are labeled as deviant, they will confirm the label by acting deviant.

Initial acts (primary deviance) are usually mild but lead to the “deviant” label and social stigma (disapproval by others).

Internalization of the deviant label leads to more serious transgressions (secondary deviance).

Large-scale deviance (eg, murder) is precipitated by smaller deviant acts (eg, hurting animals).

300
Q

What is social loafing?

A

It’s what happens when someone puts in less effort when they’re judged as part of a group.

This level of effort is lower compared to when the same person is working alone or judged individually. When working alone, many people tend to put in more effort.

301
Q

What is reaction formation?

A

reaction formation is a defense mechanism in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration of the directly opposing tendency

302
Q

what is statistical deviancy?

A

statistical deviance is behavior that does not follow the norms upheld by a majority of people in a given situation.

For example, if 90 percent of high school students approve of drinking beer at parties, then the few students who abstain from drinking would be regarded as deviants by their peers.

303
Q

What is maladaptiveness?

A

Maladaptive behavior is behavior that prevents you from making adjustments that are in your own best interest. Avoidance, withdrawal, and passive aggression are examples of maladaptive behaviors

maladaptation is a trait that is more harmful than helpful, in contrast with an adaptation,

The maladaptiveness criterion takes into account whether the behavior negatively impacts the person’s life or poses a threat to others.

304
Q

What is a schema?

A

a schema describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.

an organizing pattern of thought that categorizes and interprets information – thus shaping attitudes and perspectives

305
Q

What is the affective component of attitudes?

A

it relates to a person’s feelings or emotions in their shaping on attitudes towards a person or object

306
Q

What is the cognitive component of attitude?

A

The cognitive component of attitude is the way in which people think about and interpret their attitudes. This component includes thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and behaviors that are related to how individuals think about their attitudes

exp. if you know dogs bite and this is dangerous, you would adapt your attitdues towards dogs when you see them because of this knowledge

307
Q

What is the behavioral component of attitude?

A

the way the attitude we have influences on how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.

this involves our actions towards a person or situation

308
Q

What are the Big Five personality traits?

A

The five broad personality traits described by the theory are

  1. extraversion (also often spelled extroversion),
  2. agreeableness,
  3. openness,
  4. conscientiousness,
  5. and neuroticism
309
Q

what is overextension?

A

“Overextension” is the term for applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance (for example, “doggie” for a cow).

310
Q

What is categorical perception?

A

Categorical perception is a phenomenon of perception of distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum

i.e. looking at a rainbow and distinguishing certain shades as all just blue, even though there are gradual distinction. Or how english speakers view red and pink as difference but russian speakers do not view them differently as they do not have a word for pink

311
Q

What is bootstrapping?

A

a theory that children will learn word meanings using syntactic cateogries and language structures

refers to a child’s ability to acquire more knowledge and apply more complex rules after accomplishing the initial task of language acquisition

Both a metaphor and a reality, bootstrapping is a learning process which directs a person towards being self-equipped and self-reliant.”

312
Q

What is the naming explosion?

A

a stage in language development, usually occurring during a child’s 2nd year, when a marked increase occurs in the rate at which new words are added to the child’s productive vocabulary.

313
Q

What is shaping?

A

Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior. It is utilized to establish a novel behavior.

314
Q

What is systematic desensitization?

A

Systematic desensitization is a classical conditioning technique in which the intensity of an unconditioned stimulus is gradually increased until it no longer elicits the conditioned response.

this is a method by which people overcome anxieties and phobias

315
Q

What is elaborative encoding?

A

Elaborative encoding refers to combining new (to-be-remembered) information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information

316
Q

What is monocular depth cue?

A

the information in the retinal image that gives us information about depth and distance but can be inferred from just a single retina (or eye)

317
Q

What is binocular depth cue?

A

Binocular convergence is when both eyes rotate inward at different angles to focus on an object.

Binocular convergence creates a three-dimensional image that helps with depth perception and the location of objects.

318
Q

What are the two types of binocular depth cues?

A

There are two types of binocular depth cues: convergence and retinal disparity.

Convergence uses both eyes to focus on the same object. As an object moves close, the eyes come closer together to focus. As the eye look at an object further away, the eyes move further apart to focus.

Retinal disparity creates an overlapping image. Each eye produces an image; however, the angle of each eye is different, making the images different from each eye.

319
Q

What is culture lag?

A

the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and that social problems and conflicts are caused by this lag.

exp. the period of adaptation when automobiles became faster and more efficient. It took some time for society to start building infrastructure that would tailor mainly to the new, more efficient, vehicles.

320
Q

What is the life course perspective?

A

a multidisciplinary approach to understanding the mental, physical and social health of individuals, which incorporates both life span and life stage concepts that determine the health trajectory.

it looks at environmental factors, life experiences, and social environment in how they affect health

321
Q

what is social epidemiology?

A

Social epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology that focuses particularly on the effects of social-structural factors on states of health. Social epidemiology assumes that the distribution of advantages and disadvantages in a society reflects the distribution of health and disease.

322
Q

What is medicalization?

A
323
Q

What is disinhibition?

A

Disinhibition is saying or doing something on a whim, without thinking in advance of what could be the unwanted or even dangerous result.

324
Q

What is conversion disorder?

A

conversion disorder involves neurological symptoms (blindness, paralysis, sensory issues, etc.).

a condition in which a person experiences physical and sensory problems, such as paralysis, numbness, blindness, deafness or seizures, with no underlying neurologic pathology.

a type of somatic disorder

325
Q

What is the proximity effect?

A

The proximity effect posits that we experience greater attraction to people who are physically closer to us.

326
Q

What is the reciprocal effect?

A

Reciprocal liking refers to our tendency to like people better when they like us.

327
Q

What are two types of nonassociative learning?

A

Habituation

sensitization

328
Q

What is sensitization?

A

Sensitization is defined as an increase in the magnitude of a response after repeated exposures to the same stimulus. It is one of the two major types of nonassociative learning.

329
Q

What is habituation?

A

Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

habituation involves “growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus,” thereby diminishing its effectiveness

a type of nonassociative learning

330
Q

what is nonassociative learning?

A

a process in which an organism’s behavior toward a specific stimulus changes over time in the absence of any evident link to (association with) consequences or other stimuli that would induce such change.

Nonassociative learning is thus based on frequency. There are two major forms of nonassociative learning: habituation and sensitization.

331
Q

What are three types of associative learning?

A

classical conditioning

operant conditioning

observational learning

332
Q

What are the levels stages of Kohlberg’s moral development?

A

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY (0-9)

stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

stage 2:Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong)

stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

POSTCONVETIONAL MORALITY (individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles.)

stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

stage 6: Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

333
Q

What is the activation-synthesis theory of dreams?

A

Activation-synthesis theory holds that there is a causal connection between neural activation and dream content.

334
Q

What is the cognitive dream theory?

A

The cognitive dream theory posits that dreams are just stream-of-consciousness scenarios that are randomly ordered by the dreamer’s brain.

335
Q

What is the problem-solving dream theory?

A

roblem-solving dream theory includes the hypothesis that we attempt to solve problems while dreaming without being limited by the rules of reality

Sara's MCAT Flashcards (5 decks)

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