Psych Flashcards
1
Q
Etiology
A
is related to causes of disease
2
Q
Displacement
A
is a defense mechanism that shifts aggressive impulses to a less threatening target. It redirects emotion to a safer outlet or someone unrelated to the emotional situation, in order to avoid dealing directly with what is frightening or threatening. The girl yells at her roommate even though she is angry with her mother.
3
Q
superego
A
is the part of the mind that is critical and deals with morals.
4
Q
id
A
is the part of the mind that is concerned with primal desire
5
Q
ego
A
mediates between the desires of the superego and the id
6
Q
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A
Physiological: food water, etc
safety: a roof over your head away from predators
love/belonging: Friendships, intimacy, family
esteem: Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others
self actualization: This level of need refers to what a person’s full potential is and the realization of that potential
7
Q
Transtheoretical model precontemplation
A
Don’t even know what you are doing is wrong
8
Q
Social facilitation
A
or the audience effect, is the tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others than when alone
9
Q
social loafing
A
When a person is exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone
10
Q
Groupthink
A
is the process by which a group can come to an irrational decision by disregarding evidence and minority viewpoints in cause of reaching a group consensus
11
Q
prosocial behavior
A
Any action intended to help others
12
Q
normative influence
A
the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them
13
Q
confirmation bias:
A
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories
14
Q
Collective Behavior
A
Refers to events that suddenly emerge. These events do not conform to rules or laws but instead are shaped based on the issue at hand large groups of people
15
Q
labeling theory
A
is the view of deviance according to which being labeled as a “deviant” leads a person to engage in deviant behavior
16
Q
Strain theories
A
certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of crime
17
Q
Mediator variable
A
it explains the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable
18
Q
Drive theory
A
is based on the idea that behavior is driven by psychological needs
19
Q
Learning-performance theory:
A
involves learning something without actually performing the behavior.
20
Q
Relative deprivation
A
is the experience of being deprived of something to which one believes to be entitled
21
Q
Social stratification
A
refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are what led to social stratification
22
Q
Inattentional blindness
A
is the inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in ‘plain sight’
23
Q
Executive attention
A
is involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.
24
Q
Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory
A
Sensory register > selective filter > perceptual process(meaning) > Conscious.
25
Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
Sensory register > perceptual process > selective filter > Conscious
26
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator – weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear. Sensory register >attenuator > perceptual process > Conscious
Acronym: Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive.
27
Information processing model
proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from environment, process it, and output decisions. Doesn’t describe where things happen in the brain. INPUT > PROCESS > OUTPUT. The information-processing model is a bottom-up or stimulus driven model
28
iconic memory
memory that you see, lasts half a second
29
echoic memory
What you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds
30
Working memory (Short –Term Memory):
is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment 7 +/- 2
31
long-term memory:
Capacity is unlimited. 2 main categories: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)
32
Explicit Memory
/Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. Explicit memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Can be divided into tw categories, episodic and semantic.
33
semantic memory
Long term memory, and it deals with words/facts.
34
Episodic memory
event-related memories.
35
Implicit Memories /Non-Declarative:
involve things you may not articulate. Implicit memory is a type of memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences Priming is an experimental factor
36
Autobiographical memory
is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory
37
Free recall
having no cues in recalling
38
primacy effect
better recalling first items on a list
39
Recency effect
recalling the last few items on a list.
40
serial position curve/effect
the overall tendency to recall first few items well, last few items well, and middle items not so great
41
Cued recall (Recall cues)
Having extra clues to remember the words. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you
42
flashbulb memories
Highly emotional memories that feel extremely vivid.
43
Retroactive interference
new learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information
44
Proactive interference
something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information
45
What type of memory is stable when you’re older?
implicit memory (aka procedural memories ex. riding a bike), and recognition memory (being able to pick something out of a list)
46
What type of memory improves when you age?
semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience. Typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). Also better at emotional reasoning.
47
What type of memory declines or more difficult?
episodic memories impaired, processing speed, and divided attention and prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased.
48
Korsakoff’s Syndrome:
Lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Thiamine is important for carbs to glucose for neurons. People have problems with forming new memories or recalling old ones.
49
Semantic Networks
Concepts are organized in your mind as connected ideas. For closely related ideas, they might be closer and longer for less closely related ideas.
50
Hierarchical Semantic Network
First semantic network theory suggested that we stored information in a hierarchical way. It was thought concepts were organized from higher order categories to lower order categories. We store information at the highest category possible. Broad categories/characteristics are stored at higher level nodes.
51
Piaget’s Stages of Development
4 stages: sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational stage (2-6/7) concrete operational (7-11) Formal operational stage (12+)
52
Stage 1 of piaget
0-2 years old – Sensorimotor Stage (sensory = senses – children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active, as you develop how to use senses you learn to move your body around). Main task/awareness develops is object permanence: objects exist even if they can’t see them.
53
Stage 2 of piaget
2-6/7 years old (approx.) – Preoperational stage (operational = mental operations like imagining things”) - When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. Also very egocentric only concerned about themselves
54
Stage 3 of Piaget
7-11 years old– Concrete operational “(operational = mental operations”. Learn idea of conservation. Two glasses one tall one short which has the most water(same amount) Also learn empathy and math skills.
55
Stage 4 of Piaget
12+ years old - Formal operational stage – reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning.
56
Means-end analysis
a heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems
57
Type I error
false positive
58
type II error
false negative
59
Robert sternburg’s theory of intelligence
3 types analytical, creative and practical(solve ill defined problems) Triarchic theory of intelligence
60
Fluid Intelligence
is ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems. Ability to think on ones feet.
61
Crystallized Intelligence
refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.
62
Where is broca’s area?
Frontal lobe
63
Where is Wernicke’s area:
Temporal lobe
64
Global Aphasia
Both Broca’s Aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia are damaged. Acronym: Globally affects language
65
arcuate fasciculus:
fibers that connect Wernicke’s and Broca’s
66
conduction aphasia:
Also called associative aphasia, ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted.
67
split-brain patient:
When patients corpus callous is severed and you have trouble naming objects. happens when you can’t name things on your left visual field because language is on the left hemisphere.
68
Right hemisphere
action/perception/attention.
69
Linguistic Determinism
Language has an influence on thought. They are called the Weak and Strong hypothesis – referring to ho much influence they think language has on thought.
70
Weak Linguistic Determinism: (relativism)
language influences thought. It makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured
71
Strong Linguistic Determinism
(aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): Language determines thought completely
72
Lexical access
refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory
73
Semantics
association of meaning with a word
74
Morphology:
refers to the structure of words
75
Syntax:
how words are put together in sentences.
76
Pragmatics:
Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge.
77
Where are emotions in the brain?
Limbic system
78
Structures of the limbic system
A hippo wearing a hat HAT HIPPO: Hypothalmus, amygdala, thalamus, and Hippocampus
79
Thalamus
sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain
80
Hippocampus
key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory) LTM (long term memory). If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones (anterograde amnesia).
81
Hypothalamus
(hypo – below, thalamus, tiny structure) – for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
82
Paul Ekman’s 6 main universal emotions:
Happiness, Sadness, Surprise, Fear, Disgust, Anger
83
James-Lange theory
Acronym: J/L are one (1) apart on the alphabet, so they have a physiologic response first (1st) which leads to emotion.
84
Cannon-Bard theory
C/B are next to each other in alphabet so it all occurs at the same time (physiologic response + emotion)
85
Schachter-Singer
Event> PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously) > Emotion
86
Yerkes-Dodson Law
people perform best when they are moderately aroused bell shaped curve
87
Appraisal theory of stress
Richard Lazarus – stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events. Appraisal.
88
What are the two stages of cognitive stages of stress
Primary appraisal and the secondary appraisal.
89
Primary appraisal
assessing stress in present situation. 3 categories of response to this primary appraisal – irrelevant, benign/positive, or stressful/negative. If primary appraisal is negative (stressful), move forward with secondary appraisal
90
Secondary appraisal
Evaluation of the individual’s ability to cope with the situation. What is the individual’s material preparedness to deal with stressor? Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome)
91
Significant life changes
Signiant changes in your personal life. Ex. Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc
92
Catastrophic events
A large scale event that everyone considers threatening. Ex. wars, natural disasters etc.
93
Daily hassles
Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life Ex. long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam, car engine burns out, finding dog poop on your carpet
94
Ambient stressors
Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control
95
Which part of the brain releases cortisol(glucocorticoid):
Adrenal cortex and it is a steroid hormone.
96
What are Hans Selye’s distinct stages of stress (general adaptation syndrome(GAS)?
1) Alarm phase, 2) resistance 3) exhaustion
97
What parts of the brain receive the most amount of cortisol?
Hippocampus and frontal cortex, so that damages learning and memory (hippo) and impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning (frontal cortex.
98
Lower motor neurons (LMN)
efferent neurons of the PNS synapse on control skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. Form a neuromuscular junction
99
mechanoreceptors:
position + vibration + touch, usually very quick
100
Chemoreceptor
Stimuli is specific chemicals, usually in the tongue, blood, nose, and tissue
101
Thermoreceptor:
Stimuli is heat, cold, certain food chemicals, usually in the skin(external stimuli) and hypothalamus(internal stimuli)
102
Photoreceptor
Stimuli is light and the location is the eyes.
103
What are the two divisions of Autonomic nervous system?
Sympatheic and parasympathetic.
104
Where does the Sympatheic nervous system begin
starts middle of sp. Cord > short axon synapses with short ganglia close to spine > second neuron goes to the target cell (smooth, cardiac, gland cells)
105
Where does the Parasympathetic nervous system begin:
starts at the brain stem or bottom of sp.cord > 1st neuron sends long axon > synapse with ganglion of second neuron > sends short axon to target cell
106
Gray matter
contains most of the neuron somas.
107
White matter
contains myelinated axons
108
Where is the grey and white matter on the spinal cord?
grey is on inside and white matter on outside
109
Where is the grey and white matter on the brain?
White on inside and grey on outside. Axons go down tracts of white matter.
110
What is the upper motor neurons and what is their flow?
Control muscles of limbs and trunk, and it controls the LMNS. It can divide into two different tracts the brainstem, or spinal cord.
111
corticospinal tract
Collections of axons that UMN starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN
112
corticobulbar tract
if the UMNs neurons go to the brainstem.
113
What are the different areas of the Cerebral cortex?
Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe (PUT PICTURE)
114
Frontal lobe:
motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/direct other areas of brain), Broca’s area (speech production)
115
Parietal lobe:
somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D)
116
Occipital lobe
vision, “striate cortex” (striated cells)
117
Temporal cortex
sound, Wernicke’s area
118
What are the parts of the old brain?
Brainstem, medulla and pons, thalamus, and cerebellum
119
Cerebellum
Coordinates movement: motor plan info is sent to cerebellum, also receives position sense information (ex. Muscle stretch fibres), and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of motor cortex
120
Brainstem
midbrain, pons, medulla, big role in autonomic functions, (Pavlov’s really friction mad)
121
Pons
part that regulates walking and relaxing (PONd, I feel relaxed when looking at a pond)
122
Reticular formation:
involved in motivation and alertness (Mnemonic: if you were asleep and someone tickled you then you would wake up. reTICULar formation: if you were tickled while you were asleep.
123
Medulla
regulated autonomic activity of heart and lungs. (imagine a olympic athlete with goal medals around her lungs and heart.)
124
Basal ganglia
major role in motor functions, don’t have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.
125
Thalamus
Sensory functions, because all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus. Also higher functions of brain such as cognition and emotion.
126
Hypothalamus
controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in body.
127
Glutamate
most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Reticular activating system (required for consciousness – midbrain structures) has diffuse projection of glutamate to the cerebral cortex
128
GABA (brain) and Glycine (spinal cord)
most common inhibitory NTs ]TWO other G’s are inhibitory]
129
Acetylcholine
nuclei (Basilis and septal nuclei ) in frontal lobe [frontal lobe= start so A] that releases it to cerebral cortex, Released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system. Helps in contracting your muscles
130
Histamine
from Hypothalamus sends to cerebral cortex.
131
NorePinephrine
area in Pons called the locus coeruleus that releases it to cerebral cortex. Also ANS, but less so than Ach.
132
Serotonin
Released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. Raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system. [Like Sex= messy. From everywhere down low (brain stem)] Low levels are related to depression.
133
Dopamine
VTA and substantia nigra, low levels linked to parkinson’s disease, high levels are associated with schizophrenia.
134
Amino acid neurotransmitters
GABA (CNS) + Glycine (PNS) + glutamate
135
Peptide neurotransmitters
opiods (endorphin). Perception of pain
136
Monoamine neurotransmitters:
Amino group and aromatic group; serotonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine.
137
Endorphins
involved in blocking pain sensations and producing runners high.
138
CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography
X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding…but it can’t tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time)
139
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
This method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. The radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. As atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. This also doesn’t tell us anything about brain function either.
140
fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! Neurons that are active require oxygen. Measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain
141
PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
scans – can’t give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time
142
Hypothalamus
regulates how much fluid in blood volume in any given time.
143
What are the parts on the the endocrine system:
hypothalamus, pituitary (anterior and posterior), thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, gonads, pancreas.
144
Hypothalamus
nervous system and endocrine system connection (very small)
145
Thyroid
regulate body metabolism. T3/T4 The thyroid gland affects the growth and development of the brain, and regulates growth rates.
146
Parathyroid
4 spots back of thyroid. Regulate calcium level.
147
Adrenal glands
on top of kidney (adjacent to kidney): ACTH acts on adrenal cortex (steroids (fluid volume;stress resp.)- glucocortisteroids like cortisol) and medulla (catecholamine’s hormones), the adrenal gland plays a supportive role in development of muscle and bones.
148
Pancreas
regulates blood sugar. Not tied to pituitary gland.
149
How are hormones regulated
metabolism and negative feedback loops.
150
primary sex characteristics:
genitalia in both genders
151
Secondary sex characteristics
(related to sexual development but not required). Males – change in voice/growth of body hair, growth spurt. Females – breasts/hips. Both genders – pubic hair/underarm hair
152
What are some specific changes during puberty
Prefrontal cortex is developed during adolescence. the amygdala changes so does hypothalamus(hormones), and limbic system.
153
Synaptic pruning:
breaking down connections between certain neurons. Focus resources on the ones we use the most
154
How many genes do we have?
20,000 to 25,000
155
Heritability
estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals. o Heritability increases in following: As environments becomes more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability. Secondly, more genetic variation leads to greater heritability.
156
epigenetics
is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One epigenetic change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed.
157
Complex behavior
combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned.
158
Covert behavior
Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable.
159
Positive feedback
process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product
160
Negative feedback
rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Ex. In our body!
161
Drive Reduction Theory
Drive Theory– focuses on drives vs. needs. Ex. You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst
162
Need
is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state.
163
drive
is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis
164
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top Please Stop liking Stupid Shit. Physiological, safety, love, self esteem, self actualization
165
Incentive Theory
Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/ intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior
166
Lateral Hypothalamus
(LH, acronym: One with missing LH – Lacks Hunger, so normal functioning LH controls that we start eating. You’d be skinny like an “L”). In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating.
167
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
(VMH, acronym: when one is missing- Very Much hungry, you’d be fat like a O in ventrOmedial), so when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating
168
Prolactin
is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm.
169
Oxytocin
is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners.
170
Attitude
A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects
171
ABC model of attitude
affective(emotional), behavioral(how we behave towards an object/subject), cognitive( form thoughts/beliefs)
172
What are the 4 theories that answer the question; how do our attitudes influence behavior?
1) theory of planned behavior 2) attitude to behavior process model 3) prototype willingness model 4) elaboration likelihood model for persuasion.
173
Theory of planned behavior:
Intentions + Implications: We consider our implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these intensions and implications.
174
Attitude to behavior process model
An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object). Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior.
175
Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of….1. Past behavior 2. Attitudes – explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude behavior 3. Subjective norms – what others think about our behavior 4. Our intentions – our behavior intentions 5. Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. models/prototyping – a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.
176
Effort justification
is people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving.
177
Cognitive dissonance theory
when I’m a smoker and I learn that smoking is bad, I can do one of four things: 1) modify out cognition (change thinking) 2) Trivialize Make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition. 3) add adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable. 4) deny denying the facts.
178
Social psychology
a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. Focuses on interactions between individual and their environment.
179
What are the two instinctual drives that motivate human behavior?
Libido(natural energy source-fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure. And the Death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others.
180
reaction formation
(defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel
181
regression
(defence mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situation
182
sublimation
(defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).
183
Id
at the bottom, it’s the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification.
184
Ego
part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long-term gratification
185
superego
develops around age of 4, and it’s our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds
186
Who are the two main people from humanistic theory?
Maslow and car Rogers
187
Humanistic Theory
focuses on the conscious, and says people are inherently good, and we are self-motivated to improve (so we can reach self-actualization). (Freud theory focuses on mental conflicts (fixations))
188
Carl Rogers
is a humanistic theorist says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life, self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting climate. Growth is nurtured by when a individual is genuine, and the second is that growth is nurtured through acceptance.
189
Carl Rogers vs. maslow:
Rogers believes that people can actually reach self-actualization through self actualization.
190
biologic theory:
suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.
191
Hans Eysenck
proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)– introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation.
192
Jeffrey Alan Gray
(Biopsychological theory of personality) proposed personality is governed by the behavioural inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system. (acronym: 50 shades of Gray is based on punishment/rewards)
193
C. Robert Cloninger
linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity. (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems – Clone the Brain)
194
Social potency
trait – the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately.
195
behaviourist theory
says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environment – it’s deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities
196
Gordon Allport
Came up with the idea that we all have different traits, and there are three different basic categories: cardinal, central, and secondary.
197
Cardinal traits
are characteristics that direct most of person’s activities – the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits.
198
Central trait
Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness.
199
Secondary trait preferences or attitude.
preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat.
200
5 Factor Model (Big 5 Personality Traits)
found in all people of all populations: Openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. OCEAN
201
Reality Principle
When we become mature, you need to sacrifice short term reward and replace it with long term gratification
202
Eros Drives: Life Drive
Like health, safety, sex. Comes with love, cooperation, collaboration. Working with others to promote your and others wellbeing
203
Thantos: Death Drive
Self-Destructive/Harmful to Others. Comes with Fear, anger (inward or outward), hate
204
Neurocognitive Disorders
Loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain after nervous system has developed, like dementia
205
Schizophrenia:
usually experience a combination of positive (i.e. hallucinations, delusions, racing thoughts), negative (i.e. apathy, lack of emotion, poor or nonexistant social functioning), and cognitive (disorganized thoughts, difficulty concentrating and/or following instructions, difficulty completing tasks, memory problems)
206
How do you get Schizophrenia?
Combination of genetics and environmental, and it can be picked up by high dopamine levels. 1%% have it with males affected at a younger age than females
207
Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to illness unrelated to mental disorder, but of psychological origin with or without having a general medical condition at the same time.
208
Paraphilic Disorders
distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person’s culture
209
Prodrome
period of time before schizophrenia before symptoms are actually present
210
Delusions of persecution
Belief that others, often a vague “they,” are out to get him or her
211
Delusions of reference
A neutral environmental event is believed to have a special and personal meaning
212
Delusions of grandeur
Belief that one is a famous or important figure, such as Jesus Christ or Napolean
213
Delusions of control
Belief that one’s thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces
214
Physical brain changes in patients withs Schizophrenia
Fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brian, and the cerebral cortex seems to have deceased in size specifically in the frontal and temporal lobes (cognition and perceptual functions)
215
Location in the brain for depressed patients?
Areas with abnormal activity involve the frontal lobe and limbic structures. Decreased activity in frontal lobe and increased activity in limbic structures
216
Neurotransmitters effected by depression?
Serotonin(raphe nuclei), Norepinephrine (locus coeruleus), and dopamine (VTA)
217
Dissociate Identity disorder:
Multiple personality disorder two identities are distinct from each other. People who have a history of child abuse or another extreme stressor.
218
Central Sleep Apnea
central (brain is part of CNS)), sleep (at night), apnea (effects airflow)
219
Hypoventilation Disorder
When we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. Results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2
220
atrophy
brain tissue decreases ins lie(alzheimers)
221
Alzheimers under a microscope
3 main abnormalities: loss of neurons, plaques (amyloid, because plaques are made of beta-amyloid. Occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it’s abnormal and causes them to clump together
222
nucleus basalis
Lost early in Alzheimers patients: but the release acetylcholine.
223
Hypomania
mild forms of mania is sometimes not that bad. Lots of energy and don’t need to sleep a lot so you get lots of work done 4 days vs manic episode which is 7 days.
224
Bipolar I disorder
when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder
225
Bipolar II disorder
when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode
226
Cyclothymic disorder
hypomania + dysthymia
227
Normative influence:
even if you know what’s right, do what group’s negative actions to avoid social rejection.
228
privately conform
change behaviors and opinions to align with group
229
publicly conform
you’re outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs.
230
Group polarization
a phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted.
231
Confirmation bias
group members seek out information that support the majority view
232
Groupthink
occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand, First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted
233
Social Anomie
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community
234
Compliance
situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment.
235
Identification
when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual.
236
Internalization
idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity.
237
Normative Social Influence
If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we’re complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently
238
Informational Social Influence
when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don’t.
239
Gestalt Psychologists
believed not possible to understand human behaviour by breaking down into parts, people must be understood as whole.
240
Migram Experiment on Obedience
shock experiment.
241
Fundamental attribution error
focuses only on actions of others, tendency to believe that others in out-groups behave a certain way based on inherent personalities/flaws.
242
Zimbardo
Prison study
243
What are the factors that influence conformity and obedience?
Group size (3-5, Unaminity( when opinions of group are unanimous) Group status, group cohesion, observed behavior, public response.
244
Physical proximity
more likely to comply with someone we are close to
245
Legitimacy of authority
if wearing labcoat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey
246
institutional authority
well-respected university. Expectation that these places won’t give you a harmful comman
247
Depersonalization
when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them
248
diffusion of responsibility theory
explains bystander effect. When individuals are in presence of others where help is needed, feel less personal responsibility and less likely to take action when needed
249
Social facilitation
how would presence of others affect your behavior and the most dominant response for a particular behavior would be shown.(refers to response most likely to occur.)
250
Social loafing
is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren’t evaluated
251
Hawthorne effect
(also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
252
Socialization
is a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others
253
Important agents of socialization
what’s used to transmit (pass around) culture, values, beliefs about acceptable behaviors, and beliefs. Agents include people, organizations, and institutions that help us learn about our social world
254
Folkways
the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base
255
Mores
norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group’s values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings
256
Taboos
behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more
257
Theory of Differential Association
states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws
258
Labeling Theory
a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant
259
Primary deviance
no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person’s self-esteem
260
Secondary deviance
more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior
261
Strain Theory
if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance
262
Nonassociative learning
when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization
263
Associative learning
when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.
264
Extinctive Burst
When an animal no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (meaning increase dramatically) - this is known as an extinction burst
265
Operant Extinction
In operant conditioning it results from some response by the organism no longer being reinforced
266
Instinctual drift
it is the phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors
267
partial reinforcement schedule
behavior is reinforced only some of the time. More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement. Behavior is shaped through a process of successive reinforcement of approximations of target behavior
268
Fixed-Ratio
acronym: Ration = RATION = AMOUNT (of responses). FIXED = Consistent ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses
269
Fixed-Interval
acronym: Interval = TIME. ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks – in this case, time is constant
270
Latent learning
learned behaviour is not expressed until required
271
Taste aversion
when you eat something because you like it, but then stop eating it because you become sick (have a bad experience
272
Reciprocal determinism
is the interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another
273
Social-Cognitive Theory
view behaviors as being influenced by people’s traits/cognitions and their social context
274
Perceived behavior control
efers to a person’s ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior.
275
Ego depletion
idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control.
276
Existential self
is most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others
277
Categorical self
comes once baby realizes they’re separate (comes after existential self)– becoming aware that even though we’re separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others
278
What is Carl Rogers Theory?
Humanistic theory
279
What is the 3 components of the humanistic theory?
Self-image, self-esteem/self-worth, and ideal-self.
280
What are the two parts to the social identity theory?
Personal identity and social identity.
281
Personal Identity:
things unique to each person like personality traits
282
Social Identity
includes the groups you belong too in our community.
283
Self-efficacy
belief in one’s abilities to succeed in a situation / to organize and execute the courses of action required in a particular situation
284
Psychosocial development theory
Eriksons theory, Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one’s entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 8 stages
285
Sociocultural Cognitive development theory
Vygotsky, Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning.
286
Moral development theory:
Kohlberg, Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) – 6 levels total
287
social behaviorism
the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others
288
Socialization
(Looking glass self) describes the process by which people learn the attitudes, behaviours, and values expected by their culture/community. Socialization learning occurs through observation of/interaction with people who we are surrounded by
289
Self-serving bias:
mechanism of preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it’s due to our internal/personal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control
290
Optimism bias
is belief bad things happen to others, but not to us.
291
Stereotype threat
(negative consequence of stereotyping) - self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
292
Self-fulfilling prophecy
stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes
293
Frustration Aggression Hypothesis
Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice
294
Self-stigma
individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they’ve had, and may begin to feel rejected by society,
295
primacy bias
first impression is more important than later data.
296
recency bias
recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances
297
Halo effect
as if someone has a halo over their head
298
Just World Hypothesis
Predictable result as a consequence for our actions
299
Ethnocentric
judging someone else’s culture from the position of your own culture
300
Cultural relativism
the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one’s own culture
301
Xenocentrism
judging another culture as superior to one’s own culture
302
Mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them
303
similarity bias
implies we will not befriend people different from us
304
projection bias
is when we assume other share the same beliefs we do
305
False consensus
is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.
306
stranger anxiety
(the fear of strangers) sets in around 8 months.
307
secure attachment
Child is comfortable when mother is in room, is distressed when she isnt, and when the mom comes back the child becomes happy again.
308
Insecure attachment
Child did not explore room and is clung to her, when mother left the child is upset, when mom comes back the child is still distressed.
309
Authoritative parenting
also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children’s arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline
310
Authoritarian parenting:
very strict, break will of child. Punishment
311
Social scripts
when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on how to act
312
Altruism
care about welfare of other people and are acting to help them. Beneficial to society and also individuals
313
Tangible/Instrumental support
financial assistance/support, material goods, or services.
314
Ascribed statuses
statuses you can’t change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family
315
Role strain
when you can’t carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status, Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status
316
Role conflict
conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone’s time
317
Role Exit
Also called Social Role Exit. When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity
318
Impression management
our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage
319
Backstage
where you work on impression management
320
Prejudice vs discrimination
Prejudice is a thought and discrimination is an action.
321
Utilitarian Organizations
members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities
322
Normative Organizations
members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD
323
Coercive Organization
members don’t have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military
324
McDonaldization
policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control
325
Max Weber
(sociologist) studied structure of organizations, 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of goal of organization
326
What are the 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy?
Division of labour, Hierarchy of organization, written rules and regulations, impersonality, employment based on technical qualifications.
327
Hierarchy of organization
each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal
328
anthropomorphism
attributing human characteristics to non-human animals.
329
Functionalism
comes from macrosociology – looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning, It says that society is heading towards equilibrium. Durkheim
330
Conflict theory
is also a macroperspective – the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved
331
Microsociology
face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of the society
332
Symbolic interactionism
social theory that’s a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.
333
Ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran
334
Sects
tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches Mormon
335
Secularization
is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines
336
Fundamentalism
reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme
337
sick role
expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don’t get better or return, you’re viewed as deviant and harmful to society
338
Social epidemiology
looks at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person’s health.
339
Institutions
are structures that meet the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage, laws, etc
340
Social facts
are ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will still exist after any individual is dead.
341
Small societies
are held together by similarities, but only works for small ones…evolves into large society
342
large societies
individuals become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles
343
Problems of functionalism
focuses entirely on institutions without regard for individual (only acknowledged). Also largely unable to explain social change and conflict, so focussed on equilibrium
344
Inventor of conflict theory and what are the stages
Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.
345
social construct
is concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money
346
Social constructionism
is theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement – nations, books, etc. don’t exist in absence of human society.
347
What are the two types of social constructionism?
Weak and strong
348
What does weak social constructionism depend on?
Brute facts and institutional facts.
349
Brute facts
which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks
350
Institutional facts
are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts
351
Strong social constructionism
states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist
352
Feminist Theory
macro level perspective on society, focussing on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies, where men occupy governing positions in family and community.
353
Rational Choice Theory
people always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain most benefit
354
Exchange Theory
application of Rational Choice Theory to social interaction. Family, work, partner selection, parenting, interpersonal relationships
355
Activity Theory
looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being
356
Disengagement Theory
older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age
357
Continuity Theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.
358
gender role
is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex
359
Gender norms
(the socially acceptable ways of acting out gender) are learned from birth through childhood socialisation
360
Gender schema
Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society
361
Gender script
what we expect men and females to do. Gender Script: organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation
362
Suburbanization
is movement away from cities to get a larger home (American dream), but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help
363
Exurbs
Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs
364
Demographic transition
is a model that changes in a country’s population – population will eventually stop growing when country transitions from high birth/death rates to low birth rate/death rates (fertility/mortality) which stabilizes the population
365
Stage 1 of demographic transition model
High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition 18th century
366
Stage 2 of demographic transition model:
Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution.
367
Stage 3 of demographic transition model:
Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow
368
Stage 4 of demographic transition model
Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4.
369
Stage 5 of demographic transition model
Speculation. World population will be forced to stabilize.
370
World-Systems Theory
importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries. Divides world into 3 countries: core, periphery, and semi-periphery
371
Core
Western Europe and US. Strong Central Government with enough tax to support it. Economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control
372
Periphery
Latin America and Africa. Relatively weak government, greatly influenced by and depend on core countries and transnational corporations
373
Semi-periphery
India and Brazil, middle-ground between core and periphery. Not dominant in international trade but diversified/developed economy
374
Relative Deprivation Theory
actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. Ex. Civil Rights Movement
375
Mass Society Theory
Scepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. Ex. Nazism
376
Resource Mobilization Theory
looks at social movements from different angle. Instead of looking at deprivation of people, focuses on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources
377
High culture
refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society
378
Normative culture
refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime
379
Popular culture
refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade
380
microculture
can’t support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one’s life. Ex. Girl scouts, college sororities
381
Counterculture
group with expectations and values that strongly disagree with the main values from the larger society
382
non-material culture (symbolic culture)
doesn’t include physical objects, like ideas/beliefs/values, which tend to resist change
383
Material culture
refers to physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food and houses, and phones
384
Culture Shock
feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices
385
Diffusion
is the spread of an invention or discovery or ideas from one place to another. Spread of ideas such as Capitalism, democracy and religious beliefs have brought change in human relationships around the world
386
horizontally / horizontal mobility
move within the same class. Ex. Accountant switches job to different accounting company
387
Vertical movement /mobility
move up or down the social hierarchy. Ex. Manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurant. But if he gets demoted to serving food, fall downwards.
388
Caste system
Very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you’re born to and who you’re married to. A lot of social stability
389
Class system
allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background and movement, often by education. Less stability
390
Meritocracy
concept that people achieve social position solely based on ability and achievements. Highly idealized
391
social reproduction
People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves
392
Social stratification
is a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political
393
Theory of intersectionality
asks us to consider all the different levels of discrimination. Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification
394
class consciousness
and realize they have solidarity with one another and struggle to overcome this oppression and exploitation. Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers
395
False consciousness
unlike class consciousness, instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they’re unable to see their oppression
396
T-test
compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups.
397
Cross-sectional study
look at a group of different people at one moment in time
398
Cohort study
following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic
399
Longitudinal study
data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, can take years or decades
400
Case-control study
observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor
401
experimental Study
would involve manipulation of variables, which was not present in this study.. Would have independent and dependent variables
402
negative correlation
is a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases and the other decreases.
403
Self-Report Study
Cheap and not labor intensive. Potential for poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare w/ those from other measures
404
Validity
accuracy. Items that are high in validity accurately address the construct. “ACTUALLY GETTING AN SNSWER FOR SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEAUSRE
405
Internal Validity
extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment
406
External validity
Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people
407
Population ValiditY
Population validity is a type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability
408
Ecological Validity
Ecological validity is a type of external validity which looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior
409
test validity:
is an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results
410
Concurrent validity
measures how well a test matches up with a benchmark test, which is usually another valid measure of the same construct.
411
Predictive validity
or the extent to which an assessment is able to predict something it should be able to predict
412
Construct validity
Construct validity describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research
413
Content validity
describes the extent that the test measures the construct accurately
414
Face validity
is a measure of how representative a research project is ‘at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project.
415
Confounding variables
changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable
416
Dependent Variable:
A dependent variable is expected to change based on the manipulation of the independent variable.
417
Independent Variable:
what is manipulated
418
Temporal confounds
time related confounding variables
419
Reliability
consistency in answers across participants
420
Null Hypothesis
: A null hypothesis is a statement that suggests there is no relationship between two variables.
421
Reconstructive bias
is a type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress
422
Attrition bias
occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
423
Social desirability bias
is a type of bias related to how people respond to research questions.
424
Selection bias
refers to a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate
425
Subjective Bias
Self-reported information is always vulnerable to subjective bias
426
Implicit bias
refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual’s understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner
427
Cognitive bias
is the tendency to think in certain ways
