PSYCH 362 Test #1 Flashcards
1
Q
Dependent Variable (DV)
What is a dependent variable?
A
The outcome variable that is measured in an experiment. It “depends” on the independent variable.
Graph: Y-Axis
It’s the “result” or “what you measure” in an experiment.
2
Q
Independent Variable (IV)
What is an independent variable?
A
The variable that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Graph: X-axis
It’s the “cause” or “what you change” in an experiment
3
Q
Predictor Variable
What is a predictor variable?
A
A type of independent variable that is not directly manipulated but is used to predict the outcome of the dependent variable.
It’s a “natural” variable that helps predict outcomes but isn’t controlled by the experimenter.
4
Q
What is a confounding variable?
A
An extraneous variable that affects both the independent and dependent variables, causing a spurious association.
It’s a “hidden” variable that messes up your results if you don’t control for it.
5
Q
What is correlation?
A
A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables change together.
It’s a “relationship” between two things, but it doesn’t mean one causes the other.
Ice cream sales and drowning rates are correlated (both increase in summer), but one doesn’t cause the other.
6
Q
What is a correlation coefficient? (r)
A
A numerical value between -1 and 1 that indicates the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables.
It’s a “number” that tells you how strong and in what direction two things are related.
7
Q
What is an absolute threshold?
A
The minimum level of stimulus intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
It’s the “bare minimum” needed to notice something.
8
Q
What is signal detection theory?
A
A framework for understanding how we detect stimuli in the presence of noise or uncertainty
It’s about how we decide if we’ve noticed something real or just imagine
9
Q
What is a p-value?
A
A statistical measure that represents the probability of the results occurring randomly (by chance).
It’s the “chance” that your results are just a fluke.
10
Q
What is a Type I Error?
A
A false positive; incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis.
It’s a “false alarm” – thinking something is true when it’s not.
11
Q
What is a Type II Error?
A
A false negative; failing to reject a false null hypothesis.
It’s a “miss” – failing to notice something that’s true.
12
Q
What is a “hit” in signal detection theory?
A
Correctly detecting a signal when it is present.
It’s a “correct yes” – you noticed something real.
13
Q
What is a “false alarm” in signal detection theory?
A
Detecting a signal when it is not present.
It’s a “mistake” – thinking you noticed something that wasn’t there.
14
Q
What is a “miss” in signal detection theory?
A
Failing to detect a signal when it is present.
It’s a “missed opportunity” – you didn’t notice something real.
15
Q
What is a “correct rejection” in signal detection theory?
A
Correctly identifying that no signal is present.
It’s a “correct no” – you correctly noticed nothing was there.
16
Q
What are the three
basic types of neurons ?
A
- Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
- Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)
- Interneurons
17
Q
What is the function of the Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons) ?
A
These neurons send output from the brain to control muscle movement and glandular secretion(digestion, lubrication, and hormone regulation)
Motor neurons are like the brain’s way of telling muscles what to do.
18
Q
What is the function of the Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons) ?
A
These neurons receive input from the senses (touch, sound, light, etc.) and send that information to the spinal cord or brain.
Sensory neurons are like messengers that bring information from the outside world to the brain.
19
Q
What is the function
of the Interneurons?
A
These neurons connect other neurons together, often found in the brain and spinal cord, and help in processing information.
Interneurons are the middlemen that help process and relay information between sensory and motor neurons.
20
Q
What are the basic
components of a neuron ?
A
- Dendrites
- Nucleus
- Axon
- Myelin Sheath
- Axon Terminals
Think of a neuron like a tree. The dendrites are the roots that receive signals, the cell body (with the nucleus) is the trunk that processes information, the axon is the long branch that sends signals, and the axon terminals are the leaves that release chemicals to communicate with other trees (neurons).
21
Q
What is the function
of the Dendrites ?
A
Branched fibers that extend outward from the cell body and receive chemical signals from other neurons.
Think of a neuron like a tree. The dendrites are the roots that receive signals,
22
Q
What is the function
of the Nucleus ?
A
Contains the cell’s genetic material and controls protein synthesis.
Tree: the cell body (with the nucleus) is the trunk that processes information
23
Q
What is the function
of the Axon ?
A
A long fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to the axon terminals
Tree: the axon is the long branch that sends signals
24
Q
What is the function
of the Myelin Sheath ?
A
A fatty insulation that covers some axons, speeding up the conduction of electrical impulses.
25
What happens if the
Myelin Sheath is damaged:
Slowed signals, muscle weakness, numbness (e.g., Multiple Sclerosis).
26
What is the function
of the Axon Terminals ?
Bulb-like structures at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.
Tree: the axon terminals are the leaves that release chemicals to communicate with other trees (neurons).
27
# cs
What is Electrical Communication?
Occurs within a single neuron. When a neuron is stimulated, an electrical impulse (action potential) travels down the axon. This is a rapid, all-or-nothing signal.
Uses electrical impulses (action potentials) to quickly send signals through neurons. It is fast and direct.
28
What is Chemical Communication ?
Occurs between neurons. When the electrical impulse reaches the axon terminals, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic space. These chemicals bind to receptors on the next neuron, continuing the signal.
Uses neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) to transmit signals between neurons at synapses. It is slower but allows more control and modulation of the signal.
29
What is the difference between electrical
and chemical communication in neurons?
Electrical communication is like a wire carrying a signal, while chemical communication is like sending a message in a bottle across a river. The electrical signal travels quickly within the neuron, but the chemical signal is how neurons talk to each other.
30
What are neurotransmitters ?
Chemicals released by neurons to communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands. Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine.
Neurotransmitters are like keys that unlock doors (receptors) on other neurons.
31
What are Neurotoxins ?
Substances that damage or impair the nervous system.
Neurotoxins are like thieves that steal the keys or break the locks, disrupting communication.
32
How do neurotoxins affect neurotransmitters ?
They can block neurotransmitter release, destroy neurons, or interfere with neurotransmitter function. For example, botulinum toxin blocks acetylcholine release, leading to muscle paralysis.
33
What are the four major causes of brain injury?
* Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
* Tumor
* Stroke
* Aneurysm
34
What is Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)?
Injury to the brain caused by trauma to the head (e.g., car accidents, falls, assaults).
Two types:
* Closed-brain injury: No break in the skull (e.g., shaken baby syndrome).
* Penetrating brain injury: Break in the skull (e.g., bullet wound).
35
What are the two types
of brain tumors?
* Malignant: Cancerous, invades surrounding tissue, can spread.
* Benign: Non-cancerous, grows slowly, but can compress brain tissue.
36
What are the two types of strokes?
* Ischemic stroke: Caused by a clot blocking blood flow to the brain.
* Hemorrhagic stroke: Caused by a ruptured blood vessel in the brain.
37
What is an aneurysm?
* A weakened artery wall that bulges and can rupture.
* Can occur in the brain (cerebral aneurysm) or other parts of the body.
* A ruptured brain aneurysm can cause a hemorrhagic stroke.
38
What is lateralization of the cerebral cortex?
* The brain is divided into left and right hemispheres, each specializing in certain functions.
* Contralateral organization: The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.
* Example: Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (language comprehension) are typically in the left hemisphere.
39
What are the four main lobes
of the cerebral cortex?
* Occipital Lobe
* Parietal Lobe
* Temporal Lobe
* Frontal Lobe
40
What is the function
of the occipital lobe?
Processes visual information from the eyes (color, motion, object recognition).
41
What happens if the
occipital lobe is damaged?
* Cortical blindness: Eyes function, but the brain can’t process visual information.
* Hallucinations: Seeing things that aren’t there.
* Color blindness: Inability to see colors properly.
* Inability to track objects: Difficulty following moving objects with the eyes.
42
What is the function
of the parietal lobe?
* Proprioception: Sense of body in space.
* Sensory integration: Combines touch, temperature, and pain information.
* Language processing: Works with other lobes to process language.
43
What happens if the
parietal lobe is damaged?
* Hemispatial neglect: Ignoring one side of the world (e.g., not noticing objects on the left side).
* Xenomelia: Feeling that a limb doesn’t belong to you, leading to a desire for amputation.
44
What is the function
of the temporal lobe?
* Auditory processing: Processes sound.
* Language comprehension: Understands spoken and written language.
* High-order visual tasks: Recognizes faces and objects.
45
What happens if the
temporal lobe is damaged?
Wernicke’s aphasia: Impaired language comprehension; speech is fluent but meaningless.
46
What is the function
of the frontal lobe?
* Conscious thought: Thinking and reasoning.
* Decision-making: Weighing options and making choices.
* Planning: Organizing future actions.
* Impulse control: Suppressing socially unacceptable urges.
47
What happens if the
frontal lobe is damaged?
* Personality changes: E.g., Phineas Gage became impulsive and irritable after frontal lobe damage.
* Poor impulse control: Difficulty controlling urges.
* Difficulty planning: Struggles with organizing future actions.
48
What type of processing occurs in the occipital lobe, and what could happen if it is damaged?
The occipital lobe processes visual information. Damage to this area can lead to visual impairments or blindness.
49
How does the parietal lobe contribute to spatial orientation and navigation?
The parietal lobe helps with spatial orientation and navigation by integrating sensory information to create a sense of space.
50
What condition might arise from damage to the parietal lobe, particularly in the somatosensory cortex?
Damage to the parietal lobe, especially the somatosensory cortex, can lead to conditions like xenomelia, where a person feels that a limb does not belong to them.
51
What role does the temporal lobe play in auditory processing and language comprehension?
The temporal lobe processes sound and is crucial for understanding language, particularly through Wernicke’s area.
52
What is Wernicke’s Aphasia, and how does it relate to damage in the temporal lobe?
Wernicke’s Aphasia is a language disorder where comprehension is impaired, often due to damage in the temporal lobe, specifically Wernicke’s area.
53
Why is teenage behavior often linked to the development of the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex?
Teenage behavior is linked to an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex, which controls impulse and risk assessment, combined with an active nucleus accumbens, which drives pleasure-seeking behavior.
54
What is the limbic system, and what functions does it regulate?
The limbic system regulates emotions, memory, and primal drives like hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior.
55
Which structures are part of the limbic system, and what roles do they play?
The limbic system includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, which regulate emotions, memory, and biological drives.
56
How does the limbic system contribute to emotions, memory, and primal drives like hunger and thirst?
The limbic system processes emotions, forms memories, and regulates basic instincts like hunger, thirst, and sexual behavio
57
What is the primary role of the thalamus in the brain?
The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
58
How does the thalamus
relay sensory information
to the cerebral cortex?
The thalamus receives sensory signals (e.g., visual, auditory) and sends them to the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex for processing.
59
What are some potential effects of damage to the thalamus, such as loss of sensation or abnormal sensations?
Damage to the thalamus can cause loss of sensation, abnormal sensations (dysesthesia), or even a permanent vegetative state.
60
What are the main functions
of the hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus regulates biological drives like hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, and circadian rhythms.
61
How does the hypothalamus regulate biological drives like feeding, fighting, fleeing, and mating?
The hypothalamus controls primal instincts, often referred to as the "Four F's": Feeding, Fighting, Fleeing, and Mating.
62
What is the role of the hypothalamus in controlling circadian rhythms, and how does the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contribute to this?
The hypothalamus, through the SCN, regulates circadian rhythms by responding to light and dark cues, controlling sleep-wake cycles.
63
What happens if the hypothalamus is damaged, particularly in areas related to hunger and satiety?
Damage to the hypothalamus, especially the ventromedial hypothalamus, can lead to hyperphagia (excessive eating) due to a lack of satiety signals.
64
What is the primary function
of the hippocampus?
The hippocampus is critical for forming new memories and spatial navigation.
65
How does the hippocampus contribute to memory formation and spatial navigation?
The hippocampus encodes new memories and helps in creating mental maps for spatial navigation.
66
What types of memory disorders can result from damage to the hippocampus?
Damage to the hippocampus can lead to memory disorders like anterograde amnesia, where new memories cannot be formed.
67
What is retrograde amnesia, and what causes it?
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories formed before the onset of amnesia, often caused by brain trauma or disease.
68
What is anterograde amnesia, and how does it differ from retrograde amnesia?
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia, while retrograde amnesia affects past memories.
69
Which brain structure is most commonly associated with anterograde amnesia, and why?
The hippocampus is most commonly associated with anterograde amnesia because it is crucial for forming new memories.
70
What is the role of the amygdala in the brain?
The amygdala processes emotions, particularly fear and pleasure.
71
How does the amygdala process emotions, particularly fear and pleasure?
The amygdala evaluates emotional stimuli and triggers responses like fear or pleasure based on the context.
72
How does the amygdala interact with the hippocampus to link emotions to memories?
The amygdala works with the hippocampus to enhance the retention of emotionally charged memories.
73
What is the significance of the amygdala-hippocampus connection in memory retention?
The amygdala-hippocampus connection helps in forming strong emotional memories, making them more vivid and long-lasting.
74
What is the role of the hypothalamus in controlling circadian rhythms, and how does the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contribute to this?
The hypothalamus, through the SCN, regulates circadian rhythms by responding to light and dark cues, controlling sleep-wake cycles
75
What happens if the hypothalamus is damaged, particularly in areas related to hunger and satiety?
Damage to the hypothalamus, especially the ventromedial hypothalamus, can lead to hyperphagia (excessive eating) due to a lack of satiety signals.
76
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the process of detecting raw sensory information from the environment, while perception is the brain's interpretation of that information.
77
How does the brain handle the paradox of vision, where there is too much information to process but not enough to fully understand the world?
The brain uses unconscious inferences and past experiences to make educated guesses about the world, allowing us to perceive it meaningfully despite incomplete sensory data.
78
What is the role of unconscious inference in visual perception?
Unconscious inference allows the brain to make smart guesses about what is most likely in the world based on past experiences and evolutionary history.
79
What are unconscious inferences, and how do they influence perception?
Unconscious inferences are the brain's automatic, educated guesses about the world based on past experiences and context, shaping how we perceive sensory information.
80
How does past experience and evolutionary history shape our unconscious inferences about the world?
Past experiences and evolutionary history provide the brain with a framework to interpret ambiguous sensory information, making perception more efficient and accurate.
81
What is bottom-up processing, and how does it differ from top-down processing?
Bottom-up processing starts with raw sensory data and builds up to perception, while top-down processing uses prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory information.
82
How does context influence top-down processing in perception?
Context provides expectations and prior knowledge that shape how we interpret sensory information, influencing what we perceive.
83
Give an example of how bottom-up and top-down processing work together to create perception.
When viewing an ambiguous image (e.g., Rubin’s vase), bottom-up processing detects the lines and shapes, while top-down processing uses context to interpret whether we see a vase or two faces
84
How is sensation defined, and how does it differ from perception?
Sensation is the detection of sensory stimuli by the sensory organs, while perception is the brain's interpretation of those stimuli.
85
What role does the brain play in transforming raw sensory data into meaningful perceptions?
The brain processes raw sensory data using both bottom-up and top-down processing, combining sensory input with prior knowledge to create meaningful perceptions.
86
Why is it important to distinguish between sensation and perception in cognitive psychology?
Distinguishing between sensation and perception helps us understand how the brain transforms raw sensory data into meaningful experiences, revealing the complexity of cognitive processes.
87
88
What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing in sensation and perception?
Bottom-up processing refers to the use of raw sensory information to build a perception from the stimulus alone, while top-down processing involves using context, past experiences, and expectations to interpret the stimulus.
89
How do sensation and perception differ in the context of sensory processing?
Sensation is the input from the physical world to our sensory receptors (e.g., detecting a grey square), while perception is how the brain interprets and makes unconscious inferences about that stimulus (e.g., perceiving the square as blue due to lighting context).
90
What happens to the pupil in response to bright light and low light conditions?
In bright light, the iris constricts the pupil to reduce the amount of light entering the eye. In low light, the iris dilates the pupil to allow more light to enter.
91
What are the
key components of the retina
involvedin processing light?
The retina contains rods, cones, retinal ganglion cells, bipolar cells, and the pigment epithelium. Rods and cones are photoreceptors, while ganglion and bipolar cells help transmit visual information to the brain
92
What is the primary function of rods and cones in the retina?
Rods are responsible for vision in low-light conditions and detect shades of grey, while cones are responsible for color vision and function best in bright light.
93
How does the retinal pigment epithelium in humans differ from the tapetum lucidum in nocturnal animals?
The retinal pigment epithelium in humans absorbs stray light to maintain high resolution, while the tapetum lucidum in nocturnal animals reflects light to enhance vision in low-light conditions, though at the cost of reduced resolution.
94
What is the primary function of retinal ganglion cells in visual processing?
Retinal ganglion cells transmit refined visual information from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve.
95
Why are the axons of retinal ganglion cells unmyelinated within the retina?
Myelin would absorb light, reducing visual acuity, so the axons remain unmyelinated to maintain sharp vision.
96
Why don’t we see the blood vessels in our eyes even though they are present?
Sensory adaptation causes us to stop noticing faint, unchanging stimuli like blood vessels in the eye.
97
What is motion-induced blindness in the context of sensory adaptation?
If something doesn’t move with the world, we stop seeing it, even if it’s not faint.
98
What is the main difference between rods and cones in the retina?
Rods detect light/dark and are used in dim light, while cones detect color and are used in bright light.
99
Where are cones most densely packed in the retina?
Cones are most densely packed in the fovea, which is responsible for fine detail vision.
100
What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?
The trichromatic theory states that color vision is based on three types of cones sensitive to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths.
101
What causes color blindness according to the trichromatic theory?
Color blindness is caused by the malformation or absence of one or more types of cones (e.g., red, green, or blue).
102
What is protanopia, and how does it affect color perception?
Protanopia is a type of color blindness where individuals lack or have irregular red cones, making it difficult to distinguish between red and green.
103
What is the Ishihara test used for?
The Ishihara test is used to diagnose color blindness by identifying whether individuals can distinguish numbers formed by dots of different colors.
104
What is the geniculostriate pathway, and what does it do?
The geniculostriate pathway is the primary visual pathway that routes information from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) and then to the primary visual cortex (V1).
105
What is the function of the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT)?
The RHT routes visual information to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to regulate circadian rhythms.
106
What is the tectopulvinar pathway responsible for?
The tectopulvinar pathway directs eye movements and integrates visual information with auditory stimuli, primarily in lower vertebrates like fish and reptiles.
107
What is the primary role of the V1 area in the visual cortex?
V1 (primary visual cortex) processes basic visual features like edges, orientation, and motion.
108
What does the V4 area of the visual cortex specialize in?
V4 is involved in processing color and form.
109
What is the function of the V5/MT area in the visual cortex?
V5/MT is specialized for processing motion and tracking moving objects.
110
How does the left visual field differ from the right visual field in terms of brain processing?
The left visual field is processed by the right hemisphere of the brain, while the right visual field is processed by the left hemisphere. This is due to the crossing of optic nerve fibers at the optic chiasm.
111
What are the Gestalt Laws, and how do they help the brain identify objects?
The Gestalt Laws are a set of principles that explain how the brain groups parts of a visual scene into whole objects. They include principles like proximity, similarity, and common fate, which help the brain decide what belongs together as part of the same object.
112
According to the Gestalt Law of Proximity, how do objects that are close to each other appear?
Objects or shapes that are close to one another appear to form groups, even if they are not physically connected.
113
How does the Gestalt Law of Similarity influence our perception of objects?
Stimuli that are physically similar are perceived as part of the same object, while dissimilar stimuli are seen as part of different objects.
114
What does the Gestalt Law of Common Fate state about moving objects?
Elements that move together are perceived as grouped together, which is especially useful for identifying objects that are partially hidden or occluded.
115
Why is face perception important from an evolutionary perspective?
Face perception is crucial for quickly discriminating faces from other objects, allowing us to gather important information such as identity, emotion, health, gender, and gaze direction, which has evolutionary advantages.
116
What is the primary function of the Occipital Face Area (OFA) in face processing?
The OFA, located in the occipital lobe, primarily extracts common features of faces during the early stages of recognition, focusing on the parts of the face.
117
What role does the Fusiform Face Area (FFA) play in face recognition?
The FFA, located in the fusiform gyrus, processes holistic or configural information, putting together the processed pieces of the face and judging the spatial relationships between facial features to determine identity.
118
What is the role of the Superior Temporal Sulcus (fSTS) in face perception?
The fSTS is involved in the perception of gaze and biological motion, comparing dynamic information to known patterns of movement to aid in object identification.
119
What role does the amygdala play in face perception?
The amygdala processes one’s own emotions and perceives the emotions of others, playing a key role in emotional face recognition.
120
What is prosopagnosia, and what causes it?
Prosopagnosia, or face blindness, is the inability to recognize human faces, including one’s own. It is caused by damage to the Fusiform Face Area (FFA) or Occipital Face Area (OFA).
121
What is the Ebbinghaus Illusion, and how does it explain the perception of the moon's size?
The Ebbinghaus Illusion occurs when two identical circles appear different in size due to the size of surrounding circles. This illusion helps explain why the moon appears larger near the horizon compared to when it is higher in the sky.
122
What are the three main parts of the ear, and what are their primary functions?
Outer Ear: Funnels sound waves into the ear canal.
Middle Ear: Amplifies sound through the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).
Inner Ear: Transduces sound into electrical signals via the cochlea and sends them to the brain.
123
How does the brain determine if a sound is coming from the left or right?
The brain calculates interaural time differences—the time it takes for sound to reach one ear before the other—to localize sounds from the left or right.
124
What is taste aversion, and how does it develop?
Taste aversion is the brain’s association of a specific taste with a negative experience (e.g., nausea). It develops to help avoid harmful substances in the future, even if the food didn’t directly cause the sickness
125
What are pheromones, and how do they function in humans compared to animals?
Pheromones are chemicals secreted by animals that trigger social responses. In humans, pheromone detection is largely vestigial, with minimal effects, unlike in animals where they play significant roles in mating, territory marking, and alarm signals.
126
What types of sensations do cutaneous receptors respond to?
Cutaneous receptors respond to temperature, texture, pain, and pressure.
127
What is the two-point discrimination threshold, and how does it vary across the body?
The two-point discrimination threshold is the ability to discern two distinct points touching the skin. It varies across the body, with high resolution in areas like the tongue and fingertips, and low resolution in areas like the back.
128
What are the two main
methods of mediating pain, and how do they work?
Local Anesthetics: Block pain signals at the injury site by preventing nociceptors from firing.
Analgesics (e.g., opiates): Block pain signals in the brain by hindering the transmission of Substance P.
129
What is the Nasal Ranger, and
how is it used?
The Nasal Ranger is a device used by government officials to determine the intensity and source of pungent odors in a neighborhood. It costs about $3000.
130
