psych 318 study final Flashcards
1
Q
cognitive psychology
A
those processes by
which the sensory input is transformed, reduced,
elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.
Perception Learning & Memory Attention Language Problem-solving
2
Q
Cognitive science
A
A larger disclosure
philosophy psychology linguistics artificial intelligence neuroscience anthropology
3
Q
Dualism
A
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Body is material, mind immaterial
Dualism is the view that the mind and body both exist as separate entities.
Descartes / Cartesian dualism argues that there is a two-way interaction between mental and physical substances.
4
Q
Interactionism
A
the position that mind and body are distinct, incompatible substances that nevertheless interact, so that each has a causal influence on the other.
5
Q
Epiphenomenalism
A
the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events.
Behavior is caused by muscles that contract upon receiving neural impulses, and neural impulses are generated by input from other neurons or from sense organs.
6
Q
Parallelism
A
the theory that mental and bodily events are perfectly coordinated, without any causal interaction between them.
7
Q
Materialism
A
(alone)
the philosophical position that everything, including mental events, is composed of physical matter and is thus subject to the laws of physics
8
Q
Idealism
A
the position that reality, including the natural world, is not independent of mind.
9
Q
Monism
A
the belief that ultimately the mind and the brain are the same thing.
10
Q
The guiding principle of connectionism aka (parallel distributed processing)
A
The mind is an activation-spreading network.
A computational modeling approach using artificial neural networks
Because connections between neurons (synapses) are
what grow and change during learning, we can think of
human (and animal) memory as being “stored” in that
pattern of connections
11
Q
Soma
A
cell body
where the signals from the dendrites are joined and passed on.
The soma and the nucleus do not play an active role in the transmission of the neural signal.
Instead, these two structures serve to maintain the cell and keep the neuron functional.
12
Q
Dendrites
A
(signal receivers)
where a neuron receives input from other cells.
Dendrites branch as they move towards their tips, just like tree branches do, and they even have leaf-like structures on them called spines.
13
Q
Axon
A
(signal carrier line)
where electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be received by other neurons.
14
Q
Synapse
A
(a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter. )
the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another
15
Q
Spike-timing-dependent plasticity
A
if a presynaptic neuron consistently fires just before a postsynaptic neuron, the synapse is strengthened; but if the presynaptic neuron consistently fires just after the postsynaptic neuron, the synapse is weakened.
16
Q
Activation spreading
A
when a neuron receives enough excitatory input, it “spikes” – an electrochemical impulse
travels down its axon, and it dumps chemical messengers on any downstream cells with which it shares a synapse
17
Q
Connection weight
A
degree of difficulty or relative time and effort required for comprehending a given piece of software,
18
Q
What constitutes “learning” in an artificial neural network?
A
Learning is that which tunes the functioning of this loop in response to prior history
19
Q
Error-driven learning
A
a sub-area of machine learning concerned with how an agent ought to take actions in an environment so as to minimize some error feedback. It is a type of reinforcement learning.
20
Q
Internal representation
A
a presentation to the mind in the form of an idea or image.
21
Q
Pavlov’s physiological theory of classical conditioning
A
we are born with reflexive responses to some stimuli
But we can also learn novel stimulus-response associations
22
Q
Unconditioned response
A
a pre-existing reflexive response to a stimulus (like salivating in response to meat)
23
Q
Conditioned response
A
a novel learned response to a stimulus (like salivating in response to a tone)
24
Q
Unconditioned stimulus
A
a stimulus that drives a pre-existing reflexive response (like meat driving salivation)
25
Conditioned stimulus
a stimulus that comes to drive a novel learned response (like a tone driving salivation)
26
Extinction
only the conditioned stimulus is presented (only tone, no meat) to try and get dog to stop associating it with meat
Spontaneous recovery implies the conditioned association was not lost.
Pavlov suggested that during extinction an inhibitory connection, parallel to the excitatory one, grew between the affected brain centers
27
Spontaneous recovery
Spontaneous recovery implies the conditioned association was not lost.
28
Pavlov’s inhibitory interpretation of extinction
Pavlov suggested that during extinction an inhibitory
connection, parallel to the excitatory one, grew
between the affected brain centers
29
Conditioned inhibition
see if you can teach the organism that the presence of one stimulus should neutralize the conditioned response learned for another stimulus
metronome equals meat and then metronome plus whistle equals no meat (whistle and metronome gave less saliva)
30
Generalization
it will be reasonable to respond to similar stimuli in a similar way
31
Retina
contains millions of light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) and other nerve cells that receive and organize visual information.
Your retina sends this information to your brain through your optic nerve, enabling you to see.
32
Photoreceptor
specialized cells for detecting light.
They are composed of the outer nuclear layer that contains the cell nuclei, the inner segment that houses the cell machinery, and the outer segment that contains photosensitive pigment.
33
Rods and cones
```
Rods
-Responsible for night &
peripheral vision
-Very sensitive
-Work well in low-light
-Concentrated in periphery
```
Cones
- Responsible for color vision
- Less sensitive
- Work best under bright light
- Concentrated in fovea
34
Retinal ganglion cells
the bridging neurons that connect the retinal input to the visual processing centres within the central nervous system.
35
Center-surround receptive field
allows ganglion cells to transmit information not merely about whether photoreceptor cells are exposed to light, but also about the differences in firing rates of cells in the center and surround. This allows them to transmit information about contrast.
36
Retinotopic organization
The neurons are arranged in a rough “map” of the retina
Arranged into hierarchical layers with overlapping receptive fields: Receptive fields at “higher layers” take lower-level receptive fields as input
neurons with receptive fields close together in visual space have cell bodies close together in the cortex.
37
Dorsal and ventral streams
Dorsal stream
- ”Where” path
- Determines locations in space
- Helps to guide motor actions
Ventral stream
- ”What” path
- Object recognition
38
Simple and complex cells
Simple cells are selective (fire the most) for bars of light in preferred positions and orientations
(used for edge detection)
Simple cells feed their outputs to complex cells
Complex cells are selective for bars of light in a preferred orientation that are moving. Sometimes they have a preferred direction of motion
39
Trichromatic theory
the theory that our color vision depends on how light energy is distributed across three different frequency “bands”
40
Opponent-process theory
The theory that color vision involves competition between opposites, like blue and yellow, or red and green
41
Retinex theory
the theory that color is partly “constructed” on the cortex, in response to top-down cues
The theory is largely an attempt to explain color constancy = the principle that objects appear roughly the same color to us under a wide variety of lighting conditions
42
Color constancy
the principle that objects appear roughly the same color to us under a wide variety of lighting conditions
43
Parallax
(buildings moving in background)
| the interrelated movements of elements in a scene that can occur when the observer moves relative to the scene.
44
Stereopsis
triangulating across two slightly different images of the same scene
45
Convergence
degree to which eyes angle toward each other when fixating on object (looking at your finger close and then from far)
46
Figure vs. ground
Figure-ground perception refers to the tendency of the visual system to simplify a scene into the main object that we are looking at (the figure) and everything else that forms the background (or ground).
47
Feature analysis theory
Objects recognized via the presence or absence of
large sets of features
Has emphasized letter and number recognition
Gibson (1969): Decisions about whether letters are
different take longer if letters share large number of
features (e.g., P & R)
48
Distinctive features
Primitive, salient visual characteristics are distinctive
| features
49
Recognition-by-components theory
Recognizable forms are composed from 3D geometric
visual primitives called geons
However, objects are recognized slower when viewed
from unusual perspectives
50
Geons
Recognizable forms are composed from 3D geometric visual primitives called geons
51
Word superiority effect
letters recognized faster when in components of real words than when seen in isolation or pseudowords
52
Facial pareidolia
imposing a face-like percept on a stimulus that is not a face (face in coffee)
53
Change blindness
when two pictures are slightly changed (picture of globe with people on the side then picture of globe without people on the side.
54
Frequency vs. amplitude
Frequency is how many cycles are completed per unit time
Amplitude is the height of the peak (or trough) of the wave
55
Fundamental vs. harmonic
The harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency. So if the fundamental frequency is 100 Hz, the higher harmonics will be 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, and so on.
56
Pinna
That funky set of outer ear folds
It “funnels” sound toward the eardrum,
thus working as an amplifier
57
Notch of pinna
the filter function that dampens some frequencies applies differently to sounds coming from above than sounds coming from below
phase cancellation in a small band of high frequencies
58
Cochlea
The cochlea is a hollow, spiral-shaped bone found in the inner ear that plays a key role in the sense of hearing and participates in the process of auditory transduction.
59
Hair cells
The variability in hair cell length differs across ranges of the pitch spectrum, so we discriminate better in some ranges than others
Inner hair cells collect and relay sound information to the brain through the auditory nerve. Outer hair cells work to amplify sounds, helping us to pick up quiet sounds by making them seem louder.
60
What do we perceive as pitch?
We experience the fundamental frequency (f0) of a complex waveform as the psychological value of “pitch.”
61
What do we perceive as timbre?
The specific set of audible harmonics is what gives a sound source its timbre, or sense of uniqueness.
62
Inter-aural time difference
sound reaches one ear slightly before the other
63
Segmentation problem
Might not be gaps between segments or
words
Sometimes gaps occur mid-word
Coarticulation
64
Coarticulation
the articulation of two or more speech sounds together, so that one influences the other.
65
Phoneme
sets of basic sounds (in fact, the smallest set of sounds) that are the building blocks to all spoken language.
66
Formant
peak frequencies made by our vocal cords when we speak. The vibration of the vocal cords and the changing shape of the vocal tract occur when speaking.
67
Voice onset time
a feature of the production of stop consonants. It is defined as the length of time that passes between the release of a stop consonant and the onset of voicing, the vibration of the vocal folds, or, according to other authors, periodicity.
68
Visemes
visual, articulatory cues to phoneme identities (what letters or sounds doe the mouth look like its making?)
69
McGurk effect
When visual and acoustic information conflict, visual takes precedence
70
Mechanoreceptors
the four types of cutaneous receptor cells
71
Meissner’s corpuscle
in the epidermis
rapidly adapting – meaning they respond when stimuli are applied and then quickly removed
72
Merkel’s disk
in the epidermis
slowly adapting –meaning they fire continuously as stimulus is applied
73
Ruffini ending
are deeper down, in the dermis
slowly adapting –meaning they fire continuously as stimulus is applied
74
Pacinian corpuscle
are deeper down, in the dermis
rapidly adapting – meaning they respond when stimuli are applied and then quickly removed
75
Somatosensory homunculus
We call this distorted map the somatosensory homunculus (homunculus means “little man”)
(head to toe map thats disproportioned)
76
Cortical magnification
Areas like lips, tongue, hands, fingers, need to be more sensitive, so they get extra processing resources on the map (the head to toe map)
77
Tactile acuity
ability to detect details on skin
78
Two-point threshold
the minimum separation between two points on skin that is perceived as two separate points
79
Duplex theory of texture
Texture perception involves two kinds of cues:
Spatial cues – large bumps and grooves felt either when moving
across them or during a stationary touch
Temporal cues – fine changes (like sandpaper) that are felt as
vibrations, and only when moving across them
When judging “roughness” of fine textures, participants can’t discriminate between them unless they move their fingers
80
Gate control model of pain
Pain signals from nociceptors enter the spinal cord; a gating mechanism in the spinal cord determines whether they are passed forward to the brain
```
The gate receives input from three
sources:
Nociceptor cells (+ input)
Mechanoreceptor cells (- input)
Central (cognitive) processes (-
input)
Excitatory (+) inputs try to open the
gate, and inhibitory (-) inputs try to
close it
```
81
Placebo vs. nocebo effects
positive priming cause a placebo effect
a phenomenon in which some people experience a benefit after the administration of an inactive "look-alike" substance or treatment.
when a person is conditioned to expect a negative response, or to anticipate negative effects from an experience.
negative priming caused a nocebo effect relative to the same condition
82
distributed attention
parallel and low-effort
attention that is focused on one perceptual object but distributed across various properties of this object.
83
focused attention
serial and effortful
having the ability to focus on one task for an unlimited amount of time without distraction
84
divided vs. selective tasks
divided: ask participant to equally distribute attention over two or more sub-tasks
selective: attend to certain information while ignoring other information
85
attentional capture
attention is oriented
automatically by obvious features of the stimulus
(Your task on the next slide is to locate as quickly as
possible the rectangle that is darker than the others)
86
cocktail-party effect
You know that thing where you suddenly realize someone across the room said your name?
87
dichotic listening
Participants frequently miss quite surprising changes in the unattended ear...
...such as the language being changed from English
to German
...or the topic being changed without warning
88
Stroop effect
Name the ink color not the word
89
isolated/combined-features
Find the horizontal bar or Find the horizontal & red bar
90
feature-present/absent
Find the circle with an attached rectangle or
Find the circle without an attached rectangle
Often humans find it easier to detect positive evidence than negative evidence
91
attentional blink
when one target is not detected because it follows a previously-attended target close in time
92
unilateral spatial neglect
certain neuropsychology patients (especially stroke sufferers) ignore one side of the world (half clock drawing)
93
chunks
A number of sub-units associated into a meaningful
whole
(remembering a number by chuncks)
94
primacy & recency
Primacy is the beginning words that we were supposed to remember and recency are the words in the end that we were supposed to remember.
However, we tend to remember the middle ones the most or "intermediate" ones.
95
multi-store model
an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores, and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.
96
working memory
a multipart temporary memory system that holds and manipulates information, drawn from both environment and LTM, in a modality-dependent fashion
97
visuospatial sketchpad
A limited-capacity system operating on visualized
| “scenes”
98
episodic buffer
integrates information from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and LTM. Supports sequential information
99
phonological loop
Processes small number of sounds
| Especially speech sounds
100
central executive
```
Focuses attention
Selects strategies
Allocates resources
Assumed to have no independent storage
Often operates via inhibitory control
```
Central executive develops over lifespan
101
mental imagery
Mental representation of stimulus not present
102
analog vs. propositional code
A mental image is analogous to a percept
Geoffrey Hinton: “When I say to you, ‘I’m seeing a
pink elephant,’ what I mean is: ‘I’ve got a brain state
such that if there were a pink elephant out there, this
would be perception.’”
Abstract and language-like
Does not resemble original stimulus
Championed by Zenon Pylshyn
- Animal
- Mammal
- Ears: big
- Nose: trunk
- Coloring: normally gray-But this time, pink
103
border bias
Imagine choosing vacation home in Oregon or
Washington
2/3 told earthquake happened ~200 miles from both
homes
1/3 told quake in Washington, 1/3 in Oregon
Final 1/3 told of no earthquake
104
alignment bias
Starting from California, which is further east, Texas or Peru?
It’s Peru! But people assume it’s Texas because: The alignment bias!
105
semantic memory
declarative memory for general facts about the world
106
category
Sets of things that go together
107
graded similarity
Some members of a category are more representative, some less
108
prototype theory
assumes typicality is based on featural overlap with the prototype
109
prototype
the most representative item of the category
110
family resemblance
each member of a category shares a feature with at least one other member
111
exemplar theory
assumes typicality is based on featural overlap with all other category members
We don’t just use the prototype
112
graceful degradation
what happens if we initially activate a few “incorrect’ features?
(5 guys example all leading to certain age, job, etc)
113
spontaneous generalization
what happens if we activate the “Jets” node? What sorts of properties can we assume are common of most “Jets?”
114
Levels of processing theory
Craik and Lockhart (1972): deep and meaningful processing leads to more accurate recall than shallow processing of surface attributes
Two major factors that work with deep processing:
Distinctiveness – working out what makes one stimulus
stand apart from others
Elaboration – processing based on meaning but also
relatedness to other concepts
115
Encoding specificity
(on land under water and studying example)
Items encoded on land remembered better on land,
and vice-versa
116
State-dependent memory
encoding specificity linked to the context of your specific bodily state
117
Massed/distributed practice
Practicing a task (or studying test material) is most effective when done for short bursts separated by breaks, and over multiple days
118
Anterograde amnesia
Amnesia – severe deficit in episodic memory retrieval
Anterograde – difficulty making new memories;
persons with this condition tend to live inside their
working memory span
119
Flashbulb memory
memory of a particularly emotionally-charged episode, often a tragedy
(can be wrong later, rocket example)
120
Post-event misinformation
When given potentially misleading or biased information about an event, one can integrate it into their episodic memory
121
Interference in memory
non-target information, often related to the target, competing for selection
Two major forms: proactive and retroactive
proactive: julie learned first and remembered and not judy
retroactive: julie learned first but forgotten, judy learned second and remembered.
122
Retrieval-induced forgetting
the act of retrieving some items in category actually makes retrieving the others harder
123
semantics
the area of linguistics associated with meaning
124
syntax
the grammatical rules that organize words into sentences
125
pragmatics
our knowledge of social rules for language use
126
Shannon-Weaver model
boys talking about tree between each other model
127
Gricean maxims
Maxims of quantity: Contribution should be as informative as needed...but no more informative
Maxims of quality: Don’t lie, Don’t say things you don’t have evidence for
Maxim of relation: Be relevant
Maxims of manner: Avoid obscurity and ambiguity, Be brief and orderly
128
grounding
talking to one another to make sure you are both talking about the same thing. Often done with Backchannels– commentary from an addressee on an
unfolding story, such as yeah, oh okay, mhm
129
poverty of the stimulus
argument that the syntax of a natural language cannot be learned by observing others and/or by having your mistakes corrected
130
universal grammar
a set of structural features genetically “hard-wired” into humans that limits the
rules languages can use
131
deep vs. surface structure
generates the surface structure of a sentence through transformations, such as changes in word order or the addition or deletion of elements.
Deep structure + transformation rules = surface structure
132
English past-tense learning
u shaped example of how kids start off saying a word right, then wrong, then right again.
133
garden-path sentence
We seem to be making guesses about the grammar of the sentence before we’ve finished reading it.
the horse raced past the barn fell.
134
functional planning
assigns words roles such as verb,
subject, or direct object
"Put the tables on the plate”
135
positional encoding
uses the assigned functions to generate appropriate word order
“The come homing of the queen”
136
TRACE model
An incoming spoken word is simulated by activating auditory features over time
137
cognitive offloading
the act of reducing the mental processing requirements of a task through physical actions like writing down information or storing information on a cell phone or computer.
Representation may be “internal” or may reflect cognitive offloading
138
analogy approach
using a solution from another similar problem to work out the current one
Can only be applied if the problems are genuine problem isomorphs, which have the same underlying structure
139
means-ends heuristic
break problem into subproblems, then reduce difference between initial and goal states for each.
Greeno (1974): the hobbits and orcs problem tended to
be operated on as a set of sub-problems
140
hill-climbing heuristic
if the goal state is the top of the hill, then at every choice point follow the “steepest incline”
In other words, make the choice that maximally
improves your position and the next step
141
local maxima
the nearest high point may not
actually be the best solution (and may not offer a
path to it)
142
functional fixedness
inability to see uses for objects beyond their typical or expected or designed purpose
143
insight problem
initially feel impossible, but if solution discovered, there is a burst of the feeling of certainty
144
dual-process theory
Cognitive processing occurs in two flavors
Type 1 processing – fast and highly automatic
Type 2 processing – slow, consciously controlled,
requiring additional attention
145
propositional calculus
the 4 syllogism operations
“If the dolphins are swimming, then the water is
warm”
Affirming the antecedent
“The dolphins are swimming”
Affirming the consequent
“The water is warm”
Denying the antecedent
“The dolphins are not swimming”
Denying the consequent
“The water is not warm”
Affirming the consequent and Denying the antecedent lead to invalid conclusions
Denying the consequent and Affirming the antecedent lead to valid conclusions
146
confirmation bias
preference for finding support for a hypothesis, rather than refuting it
(beer, soda, 24, 16, if drinking beer must be over 19 years old, most people choose 16 to check)
147
representativeness heuristic
judging likelihood of category membership from how similar item is to members of target category
148
base rates
how often items occur in the population
149
conjunction fallacy
judging a conjunction of two events as more likely than one of the constituents (usually due to representativeness heuristic)
150
availability heuristic
judging something’s likelihood by how easy it is to retrieve examples from memory
151
situated cognition
the theory that perception, thought, and action cannot be fully separated from the contexts in which they occur
152
affordance
what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes
perceivable opportunities for action , dirt road (walk)
153
“what”/”where”
The so-called “where” path
specializes in coordinating
opportunities for action
```
Persons with damage to the “what”
path might report not being able to
see a handle, but if pressed can
move their hand to grasp it in the
correct orientation
```
154
deictic pointer
A spatial memory of where one should look for key reference information, used to eliminate the need to store complex information in working memory
155
embodied cognition
Mental processes are shaped by facets of the whole body. In the context of problem solving, bodily motion may aid solution of certain tasks
156
evolutionary evidence for embodied cognition
These views share considerable overlap with situated
cognition. In fact, Wilson (2002) implies that situated
cognition is a sub-theory of embodied cognition
There is evidence that vision originally evolved in order to
improve motor control
157
embodied A-not-B error
The A-not-B error is not a result of poor world knowledge but of a bias in the motor memory from performing the reach so many times (kid sitting then standing and toys)
158
Law of effect
when a behavior taken in a given stimulus condition is reinforced by a rewarding outcome, the probability of that behavior being produced in that stimulus condition is increased
In reinforcement learning, the association depends on the organism actively producing some behavior to be reinforced
(cats escaping to get to food example)
159
Primary reinforcer
any kind of reinforcer that innately increases the probability of a behavior
160
Secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer whose reinforcing influence is acquired through learning
(money is money bc society says)
161
Sensory reinforcer
Caged monkeys that can take an action to look on the outside world for 30 seconds quickly learn to do so, and repeat the action over and over – this is now called a sensory reinforcer
162
Premack principal
higher-probability behaviors can be reinforcers for lower-probability behaviors
The higher the probability of behavior, the more effective a reinforcer the higher-probability behavior is
(kids running then sitting)
163
Delay of reinforcement
The effectiveness of reinforcement doesn’t just depend on the type of reinforcer...but also on how closely the behavior to be reinforced and the reinforcer are paired in time
As the number of intervening events increases, it gets hard to know which thing was being reinforced (rats inside box example)
164
Reinforcement schedules
First axis: interval versus ratio
Ratio reinforcement: The action must be taken some number of times before it is reinforced again
For example, those loyalty stamp cards you get that that give you a free ice cream (or whatever) every so many visits
Second axis: fixed versus variable
Fixed reinforcement: The amount of time or number
of actions to be taken before the next reinforcement
is always the same
Variable reinforcement: The amount of time or
number of actions varies inside some range
165
Contrast effects
the specific effectiveness of a reinforcer is influenced by other recently experienced reinforcers
(rats getting a certain amount of pellets)
