Psych Flashcards
1
Q
What is Attribution?
A
Judgements about the causes of our own/other’s behaviour and outcomes
2
Q
What are Personal/Internal Attributions?
A
People’s behaviour is caused by their characteristics
3
Q
What are Situational/External Attributions?
A
Aspects of situation cause a behaviour
4
Q
What are the three kinds of info that determine which attribution?
A
- Consistency
- Distinctiveness
- Consensus
5
Q
What are the two types of Attribution Biases?
A
- Fundamental Attribution Error
- Self-Serving Bias
6
Q
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
A
Underestimate impact of situation/overestimate role of personal factors when explaining other’s behaviours
7
Q
What is Self-Serving Bias?
A
Tendency to make relatively more personal attributions for success and situational attributions for failure
8
Q
What is the Primacy Effect?
A
Tendency to attach more importance to initial info. we learn about a person
9
Q
What is a Stereotype?
A
Generalized belief about a group/category of people
10
Q
What is a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy?
A
Occurs when people’s erroneous expectations lead them to act towards others in a way that brings about expected behaviours (confirming original impression)
11
Q
What is an Attitude?
A
Positive/negative evaluative reaction towards stimulus
12
Q
What are the three factors that help explain why attitude-behaviour is weak/strong?
A
- Attitudes influence behaviour more strongly when counteracting situational factors are weak
- Attitudes have a greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of them
- General attitudes are better at predicting general classes of behaviour, and specific attitudes are better at predicting specific behaviour
13
Q
What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour?
A
Our intention to engage in behaviour is strongest when we have a positive attitude toward that behaviour (perceptions of what others think supports our attitudes)
14
Q
What is the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance?
A
- people strive for consistency in their cognition
- when 2 or more cognitions contradict one another, the person experiences uncomfortable state of tension
15
Q
What is Self Perception Theory?
A
We make inferences about our own attitudes by observing how we behave
16
Q
What is Persuasion?
A
Communicator who delivers message through channel to audience within surrounding context
17
Q
Who is the Communicator?
A
Person sending the message
18
Q
What is Communicator Credibility?
A
How believable we perceive the communicator to be, key to persuasion
Credibility has two major components: expertise and trustworthiness
19
Q
What is the Message in persuasion?
A
Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else
More effective to present both sides, refute opposing
More effective to present moderate argument > extreme
20
Q
Who is the Audience in persuasion?
A
The listener
21
Q
What is the Central Route to Persuasion?
A
Occurs when people think carefully about message, are influenced by compelling arguments
People with high need for cognition will follow central route
22
Q
What is the Peripheral Route to Persuasion?
A
Occurs when people do not scrutinize the message, and are influenced by other factors
People with low self esteem/need for approval are more easily persuaded
23
Q
What is Social Influence - ‘Mere Presence of Others’?
A
Performance can be enhanced or diminished by the presence of others
Leads to heightened arousal, more likely to perform whatever behaviour is the dominant response to that situation
24
Q
What is Social Facilitation?
A
An increased tendency to perform one’s dominant response in the mere presence of others
25
What are Social Norms?
Shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave
26
What is a Social Role?
Set of norms that characterize how people in a given social position ought to behave
27
What is Conformity?
Adjustment of individual behaviours, attitudes and beliefs to group standards
28
What is Private Acceptance?
Go along with group because you believe it to be right
29
What is Compliance?
Swayed into doing things to go along, may not actually believe it
30
What are the factors influencing Obedience?
1. Status
2. Proximity of authority figure
3. Proximity of learner
4. Generality
31
What was Milgram's Obedience Study?
Study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure, examined the effects of punishment on learning (shock treatment for mistakes, 65% shocked dangerous amounts when ordered)
32
What is the Bobo Doll experiment?
Children can acquire new aggressive responses not previously at their disposal
## Footnote
However, acquisition is not equal to performance
33
What is Informational Social Influence?
Following opinions or behaviours of other people b/c we believe they have accurate knowledge
34
What is Normative Social Influence?
Conformity motivated by gaining social acceptance/avoiding rejection
35
What is the Norm of Reciprocity?
The expectation that when others treat you well, we should respond in kind
36
What is the Door-in-the-face Technique?
A persuader makes a large request, expecting rejection, and then presents a smaller request
37
What is the Foot-in-the-door Technique?
A persuader gets you to comply with a small request first and later presents a larger request
38
What is Lowballing?
A persuader gets you to commit an action and then, before you actually perform the behaviour, increases the cost of the behaviour
39
What is Deindividuation?
A loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour
40
What is Social Loafing?
The tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group
41
What is Group Polarization?
When a group of like-minded people discusses an issue, the average opinion of group members tends to become more extreme
42
What is Groupthink?
The tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement
43
What are the four reasons for Affiliation?
1. Obtain positive stimulation
2. Receive emotional support
3. Gain attention
4. Permit social comparison
44
What are the causes of Initial Attraction?
1. Proximity and mere exposure
2. Similarity
3. Physical attractiveness
45
What is Propinquity?
Physical proximity
## Footnote
Increases chance that 2 ppl come into contact
46
What is the Halo Effect?
Attractive people seem as having other positive attributes
47
What happens in the Growth of Love?
- dopamine is released, along with cortisol
- overtime throughout relationship its replaced by oxytocin
48
What is Social Penetration Theory?
Relationships progress as interactions between people become broader, involving more areas of their lives, and deeper, involving more intimate and personally meaningful areas
49
What is Social Exchange Theory?
Course of relationship is governed by rewards/costs that the partners experience
50
What are the types of Love?
passionate and companionate
51
What is Passionate Love?
Involves intense emotion, arousal and yearning
52
What is Compassionate Love?
Involves affection, deep caring about other's well being
53
What is the Triangular Theory of Love?
Focuses on intimacy, commitment and passion
54
What is the Cognitive-Arousal Model of Love?
Passionate component of love has interacting cognitive and physiological components
55
What is Prejudice?
Negative attitude toward ppl based on their membership in particular group
56
What is Discrimination?
Overt behaviour; treating ppl unfairly based on group
57
What is Categorization?
(us-them thinking)
Tendency to categorize objects and people
58
What is Realistic Conflict Theory?
Competition for limited resources fosters prejudice
59
What is Social Identity Theory?
Prejudice stems from need to enhance self-esteem
60
What is the Norm of Social Responsibility?
Ppl. should help others and contribute to welfare of society
61
What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis?
Pure altruism exists and it is produced by empathy
62
What is the Negative State Relief Model?
High empathy causes us to feel distress when we learn of other's suffering
## Footnote
helping them reduces our own distress
63
What is the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis?
Frustration inevitably leads to aggression; all aggression is result of frustration
64
What is Media Violence?
- 8/10 shows contain 'violence'
- act of violence every 16 mins
- 93.5% of cartoons contain violence
- minorities more likely
- 'violence is successful means to an end'
65
What is Personality?
The distinctive/enduring ways of thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person's responses to life situations
66
What is Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory?
Personality is an energy system
67
What is 'Psychic Energy' according to Freud?
Generated by instinctual drives
## Footnote
This energy powers the mind and constantly presses for either direct/indirect release
68
What are the Divisions of Mental Events?
Conscious, preconscious and unconscious
69
What are Conscious Events?
Events we are presently aware of
70
What are Preconscious Events?
Memories, thoughts, feelings that we're unaware of at moment, but can be recalled
71
What are Unconscious Events?
Dynamic realm of wishes, feelings and impulses that lie beyond our awareness
72
What are the divisions of Personality?
Id, Ego, Superego
73
What is the Id?
Primitive and unconscious part of personality that contains instincts
- operates according to pleasure principle
74
What is the Ego?
Executive of personality, mediates between the id and the superego, making decisions
- operates according to reality principle
- develops later in life
75
What is the Superego?
Moral arm of personality, internalizes standards and values of society
- rewards compliance with pride, non-compliance with guilt
76
What is the Iceberg Analogy?
Id is below the water (unconscious), while ego and superego are mostly above water (conscious)
77
What is Reality Anxiety?
Ego's fear of real world threats
78
What is Neurotic Anxiety?
Ego's fear of Id's desires
79
What is Moral Anxiety?
Ego's fear of guilt from superego
80
What is Repression?
Ego uses some energy to prevent anxiety-arousing memories from entering consciousness
81
What is Self-Actualization?
Total realization of one's human potential
82
What is the Self in Carl Roger's Self Theory?
- An organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs of oneself
83
What is Self-consistency?
Absence of conflict among self perceptions
84
What is Congruency?
Consistency between self-perceptions and experiences
85
What is Unconditional Positive Regard?
Communicated attitude of total and unconditional acceptance of another person
86
What is Conditional Positive Regard?
**
87
What is Factor Analysis?
Statistical technique, reduces large number of measures to small number of clusters or factors
88
What are Hans Eysenck's 2 dimensions of personality?
Introversion-extraversion and stability-instability
## Footnote
And sometimes psychoticism-self control
89
What is the Big Five Factor?
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism are principle factors of personality
90
What is Self Monitoring?
Personality trait that reflects people's tendencies to regulate social behaviour in accord with situational cues as opposed to internal values, attitudes and needs
91
What are Stressors?
Specific kinds of eliciting stimuli, situations that place demands on organisms that tax/exceed their resources
92
What is Stress?
Pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses, and behaviour tendencies that occur in response to perceived imbalance between situational demands and resources needed to cope with them
93
What are Microstressors?
Daily hassles, everyday annoyances
94
What are Catastrophic Events?
Occur unexpectedly, typically affect large #'s of ppl
## Footnote
(ex. natural disasters, acts of war, etc)
95
What are Major Negative Events?
Being victim of crime, sexual abuse, etc
96
What is the Stress Response?
1. Primary Appraisal : appraisal of demands of situation
2. Secondary Appraisal: appraisal of resources available to cope with it
3. Judgements of what consequences of situation could be
4. Appraisal of personal meaning
97
What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?
(GAS) Physiological response pattern to strong and prolonged stressors - 3 phases
98
What is the Alarm Reaction?
Phase 1 of GAS
Rapid increase in physiological arousal
- occurs due to sudden activation of sympathetic nervous system and release of hormones
99
What is the Resistance phase of GAS?
Phase 2 of GAS
Body's resources continue to be mobilized, so person can function despite presence of stressor
- Stage length depends on severity of stress, individual's health, available support and other factors
100
What is the Exhaustion stage of GAS?
Stage 3
Body's resources are dangerously depleted
- increased vulnerability to disease, collapse or even death
101
What is Epinephrine?
Released by kidney, jolt of adrenaline, sends message to hypothalamus where cortisol is released
102
What is Cortisol/glucocorticoid?
- stress hormone
- effects similar to epinephrine
- increasing blood flow, makes fat available for energy
103
What is Rape Trauma Syndrome?
Pattern cognitive, emotional and behavioural responses that occurs in response to rape trauma
104
What is Neuroticism?
Personality trait that involves tendency to experience high levels of negative affect, behave in self-defeating ways
- high tendency to experience negative emotions, be involved in stressful situations through maladaptive behaviours
105
What are the 4 Major Groups of Symptoms of PTSD?
1. Severe anxiety, physiological arousal and distress
2. Painful, uncontrollable reliving of the event(s) in flashbacks, dreams
3. Emotional numbing and avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma
4. Intense 'survivor guilt' in some instances
106
What are Vulnerability Factors?
Increase people's susceptibility to stressful events
## Footnote
ex. lack of support network, poor coping skills, etc
107
What are Protective Factors?
Environmental/personal resources that help ppl cope more effectively with stressful events
## Footnote
ex. social support, coping skills, etc
108
What is Social Support?
The aid gained through interacting with others, enhances immune system functioning
109
What is Hardiness?
A stress-resistant personality pattern that involves the factors of commitment, control, and challenge
110
What is Problem-Focused Coping?
Attempt to control/deal directly with demands of situation, or change situation so its no longer stressful
- men typically
## Footnote
- men typically
111
What is Emotional Focused Coping & Seeking Social Support?
Attempt to manage emotional responses that result from it
Turning to others for assistance/emotional support in times of stress
- women typically
## Footnote
- women typically
112
What is the Transtheoretical Model of Change?
1. Precontemplation
2. Contemplation
3. Preparation
4. Action
5. Maintenance
6. Termination
113
What is Motivational Interviewing?
Treatment approach that avoids confrontation, leads clients to their own realization of a problem; increased motivation to change
114
What are Multimodal Treatments?
Substance abuse interventions that combine # of treatments
## Footnote
Often combines biological measure with psychological measure
115
What is Aversion Therapy?
Undesired behaviour is associated with an aversive stimulus to create negative emotional response to the substance
116
What is a Gastric Ulcer?
Break in stomach line, linked to living in stressful environment
## Footnote
- not due to stress alone
117
What are Environmental Factors of Stress?
Noise
- closer to airport, more likely to have heart attack, 10-20% increase in stroke, heart disease
118
What is the Immune System's response to Stress?
Stress can suppress the immune system, results in release of glucocorticoids, directly suppressing action of white blood cells
## Footnote
- ex. acute infectious disorders increase during final exams
119
What are Specific Phobias?
Immediate, unreasonable fear of specific object or situation
120
What is Social Phobia?
Fear of embarrassment in social/performance situation
121
What are Simple Phobias?
Intense, irrational fear of object/situation, relatively common
122
What is Naltrexone?
Opioid antagonist, reduces cravings
123
What are the three D's of 'Abnormal'?
Distressing, Dysfunctional, Deviance
124
What is Distressing?
Likely to label behaviors abnormal if they intensely distress an individual
125
What is Dysfunctional?
Most behaviours that're abnormal are dysfunctional for society/the individual
126
What is Deviance?
Abnormality of behaviour based on society's judgements of the deviance of it
127
What is Abnormal Behaviour?
Behaviour that is personally distressful, personally dysfunctional, and/or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive.
128
What is DSM-5?
Most widely used diagnostic classification system
129
What is a Categorical System?
ppl placed within specific diagnostic categories
130
What is a Dimensional System?
relevant behaviours are rated along a severity measure
131
What are the 6 Dimensions of Disordered Personality?
Negative emotionality, schizotypy, disinhibition, introversion, antagonism, compulsivity
132
What are Anxiety Disorders?
Group of behaviour disorders in which anxiety/maladaptive behaviours are core of disturbance
133
What are the 4 Components of Anxiety Disorders?
1. subjective-emotional (feelings of tension/apprehension)
2. cognitive (subjective feelings of sense of impending danger, inability to cope)
3. physiological (increased heartrate + BP, rapid breathing, etc)
4. behavioral (avoidance of certain situations, impaired task performance)
134
What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?
Chronic state of diffuse/free floating anxiety that is not attached to specific situations or objects
135
What is Panic Disorder?
Characterized by unpredictable panic attacks + fear that another will occur
136
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
Characterized by persistent/unwanted thoughts and compulsive behaviours
- obsessions = repetitive/unwelcome thoughts, impulses that invade consciousness
- compulsions = repetitive behavioural responses, function to reduce the associated anxiety
137
What are the Biological Factors in Anxiety Disorders?
Abnormally low levels of GABA activity may cause ppl to have highly reactive neuron systems that quickly produce anxiety responses in response to stressors
138
What are Mood (affective) Disorders?
psychological disorders in which the person's mood
139
What is Panic Disorder?
Characterized by unpredictable panic attacks + fear that another will occur.
140
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
Characterized by persistent/unwanted thoughts and compulsive behaviours.
141
What are obsessions in OCD?
Repetitive/unwelcome thoughts, impulses that invade consciousness.
142
What are compulsions in OCD?
Repetitive behavioural responses that function to reduce the associated anxiety.
143
What are biological factors in anxiety disorders?
Abnormally low levels of GABA activity may cause people to have highly reactive neuron systems that quickly produce anxiety responses in response to stressors.
144
What are mood (affective) disorders?
Psychological disorders in which the person's mood negatively influences his or her physical, perceptual, social, and cognitive processes.
145
What is Major Depression?
Intense depression that interferes markedly with functioning.
146
What is Chronic Depression?
Moderate intensity, occurs over a long period of time, does not disrupt functioning majorly.
147
What is Bipolar Disorder?
Mood disorder in which one experiences both manic and depressed episodes.
148
What is Mania?
State of highly excited mood, opposite of depression (euphoric).
149
What are Somatic Symptom Disorders?
Physical complaints/disabilities that suggest a medical problem, yet no biological cause.
150
What is Pain Disorder?
Intense pain that is either out of proportion to whatever medical condition they might have, OR no physical basis can be found.
151
What is Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder?
Serious neurological symptoms suddenly occur, but sensory/motor pathways in the brain are still intact.
152
What are Conversion Disorders?
Strange lack of concern about their symptom + its implications.
153
What are Dissociative Disorders?
Breakdown of normal integration resulting in significant alterations in memory or identity.
154
What is Dissociative Amnesia?
Person responds to stressful event with extensive but selective memory loss.
155
What is Dissociative Fugue?
Person loses all sense of personal identity, gives up customary life, wanders to new faraway location, establishes new identity.
156
What is Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)?
A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.
157
What is Schizophrenia?
Psychotic disorder that involves severe disturbances in thinking, speech, perception, emotion, and behaviour.
158
What are Delusions?
False beliefs that are sustained in the face of evidence that normally would be sufficient to destroy them.
159
What are Hallucinations?
False perceptions that have a compelling sense of reality.
160
What is Type I Schizophrenia?
Dominated by positive symptoms, representing pathological extremes.
161
What is Type II Schizophrenia?
Dominated by negative symptoms, absence of normal reaction; lack of emotional expression and motivation.
162
What is the Dopamine Hypothesis?
The theory that schizophrenia results from excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
163
What are Personality Disorders?
Stable, ingrained, inflexible, maladaptive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
164
What is Antisocial Personality Disorder?
Lack of conscience, lack of capability to care for others, selfishness, impulsivity.
165
What is Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)?
Characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and of marked impulsivity.
166
What is ADHD?
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
167
What is Autism Spectrum Disorder?
A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.
168
Who is Sigmund Freud?
Founder of psychoanalysis; suggested talking about problems to reveal unconscious issues.
169
What is the goal of Psychoanalysis?
To help clients achieve insight, or conscious awareness of psychodynamics that underlie one's problems.
170
What is Dream Interpretation?
Belief that dreams express impulses, fantasies, and wishes that defenses keep in unconsciousness during waking hours.
171
What is Transference?
Occurs when a client responds irrationally to an analyst as if they were an important figure from the client's past.
172
What is Positive Transference?
Occurs when a client transfers intense affection, dependency, or love to the analyst.
173
What is Negative Transference?
Occurs when a client transfers expressions of anger, hatred, or disappointment to the analyst.
174
What is Client-Centered Therapy?
A humanistic psychotherapy where the most important aspect is the relationship that develops between client and therapist.
175
What are the three important attributes of a therapist?
1. Unconditional Positive Regard
2. Empathy
3. Genuineness
176
What is Gestalt Therapy?
A humanistic psychotherapy aimed at bringing background figures into immediate awareness so the client can be 'whole' again.
177
What is the Empty Chair Technique?
A role-playing intervention used in Gestalt psychotherapy where clients play conflicting parts.
178
What is Ellis' Rational-Emotive Therapy?
A cognitive therapy embodied in the ABCD model.
179
What does the ABCD model stand for?
A - activating event, B - belief system, C - emotional/behavioural consequences, D - disputing erroneous beliefs.
180
What is Beck's Cognitive Theory?
A cognitive therapy that aims to identify and reprogram errors of thinking/logic that underlie emotional disturbances.
181
What are Classical Conditioning Treatments?
Behavioural therapy used to reduce/decondition anxiety responses and condition new anxiety responses to particular stimuli.
182
What is Systematic Desensitization?
An attempt to eliminate anxiety by using counterconditioning, where relaxation replaces anxiety as a conditioned response.
183
What is Operant Conditioning Treatment?
Behaviour modification techniques that involve applying operant conditioning procedures to increase/decrease specific behaviour.
184
What is a Token Economy?
A system where clients earn tokens for exhibiting desired behaviour, which can be exchanged for privileges or treats.
185
What are Mindfulness-Based Treatments?
Treatments focusing on a mental state of awareness, focus, openness, and acceptance.
186
What is Acceptance and Commitment Theory?
Focuses on mindfulness as a vehicle for change, teaching clients to notice, accept, and embrace thoughts/feelings.
187
What is Dialectical Behavioural Therapy?
A 'package' of elements including behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches.
188
What is the Specificity Question?
Which types of therapy administered by which kinds of therapists to which kinds of clients having which kinds of problems produce which kinds of effects?
189
What is Spontaneous Remission?
Recovery from a disorder that occurs without formal treatment.
190
What are Randomized Clinical Trials?
Involves random assignment of clients to experimental or control conditions to draw conclusions about therapy's efficacy.
191
What is Meta-Analysis?
Allows researchers to combine results of many studies to arrive at an overall conclusion.
192
What is Effect Size Statistic?
Measure of treatment effectiveness indicating the percentage of treated clients that improve more than the average untreated client.
193
What is the dodo bird verdict?
The finding of similar efficacy for widely differing therapies.
194
What is Client Significance?
Requires that at the end of therapy, the client can no longer fall within the range of having a psychological disorder.
195
What are the three factors affecting the outcome of therapy?
1. Openness
2. Self-Relatedness
3. Nature of Problem
196
What are Anti-Anxiety Drugs?
Designed to reduce anxiety without affecting alertness or concentration.
197
What are Tricyclics?
Antidepressants that increase activity of norepinephrine and serotonin, preventing reuptake of transmitters.
198
What are Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors?
Antidepressants that increase activity of norepinephrine and serotonin, reducing activity of monoamine oxidase.
199
What are Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors?
Increase activity of only serotonin.
200
What is Reserpine?
Derived from snakeroot plant, calms psychotic patients, leading to the development of synthetic antipsychotic drugs.
201
What is Chlorpromazine?
Used to treat schizophrenia, decreases dopamine action.
202
What is Tardive Dyskinesia?
Involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs.
203
What is Electroconvulsive Therapy?
Application of electrical current to the brain, typically used to reduce severe depression.
204
What is Psychosurgery?
Removes/destroys brain tissue to change disordered behaviour.
205
What is Cingulotomy?
Cutting a small fibre bundle near the corpus callosum, connecting the frontal lobe with the limbic system.
