PSYC1000 Flashcards
1
Q
physical development
A
process that starts in human infancy and continues into late adolescent concentrating on gross and fine motor skills as well as puberty
2
Q
cognitive development
A
focusing on a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology
3
Q
Social development
A
how people develop social and emotional skills across the lifespan, with particular attention to childhood and adolescence.
4
Q
3 types of development are
A
- one impacts another
- things become more complex
- gaining skills can lead to losing skills
5
Q
Piaget assumed…
A
infants know less than adults, but also think less than adults
6
Q
Piaget stages
A
sensorimotor
per operational
concrete operational
formal operational
7
Q
sensorimotor
- OBJECT PERMANENCE
A
- sense, motor activity
- schemas are simple reflexes and interactions with others
- circular reactions
- OBJECT PERMANENCE
- stranger anxiety
8
Q
circular reactions
A
- primary circular reaction: action and response both involve infants own body
- secondary circular reaction: action gets a response from another person or object, leading to baby’s repeating original action
- tertiary circular reaction: action gets one pleasing result, leading baby to perform similar actions to get similar results
9
Q
pre operational
- EGOCENTRISM
A
- begins to use mental representations
- problem solving limited
- employ mental symbols (e.g. pretend play)
- language development
- EGOCENTRISM
animistic thinking; all objects have thoughts
10
Q
concrete operational
- CONSERVATION
A
- perform mental operations
- conservation
- logical thinking
11
Q
formal operational
- abstract thinking
A
- abstract thinking; imagine realities and images
- formal problem solving
- adolescent egocentrism
12
Q
criticisms of piaget
A
- development is continuous - not stage
- abilities were underestimated
- doesn’t explain cultural differences
- neglected emotions
13
Q
developmental psychology
A
Science of human development seeks to understand how and why people – all kinds of people, everywhere – change and remain the same over time
14
Q
nature and nurture
A
- Blueprint (DNA) – mini adults that will develop
- Environmental impact (develop through experience) – parents, community, culture etc.
- NATURE contributes strongly to some characteristics e.g. physical size, appearance
- More complex traits are influences by ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AS WELL AS GENES e.g. intelligence, personality
- Heredity creates predispositions, environment influences how they develop
15
Q
- Stability and change
A
- Involves the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change
- Things very stable
- Ability to change
- Acquisition or the loss of a behaviour of function
- Continuous; refers to a gradual alteration of behaviour
- Discontinuous; refers to stages of growth that are qualitatively different and that are usually ordered in a fixed sequence
16
Q
- Continuity and discontinuity
A
- Involves either gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages
17
Q
influences by birth
A
shared human genes unique genetic variation hormonal activity prenatal environment gene-environment interaction
18
Q
critical periods
A
- Brain is set to acquire a function during a limited period of time
- If doesn’t occur during this period, the function may not develop or may not be fully developed
- Maturation; biologically based changes that follow an orderly sequence
- Feeding – affects speech
19
Q
continuity in development
A
- Consistencies over time; intelligence, personality, social skills
- Shape environment to suit personality – reinforces traits, therefore stays consistent
- Cumulative effects of positive (or negative) experiences
20
Q
differences in developmental trajectories
A
- quantitative difference
- qualitative difference
21
Q
- Quantitative difference
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- Individuals with a developmental delay/intellectual disability usually go through same stages of development (but as slower pace)
22
Q
- Qualitative difference
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- Individuals with autism spectrum disorders develop social and emotional skills quite differently than normally-developing peers
23
Q
erik erikson
A
trust vs mistrust autonomy vs shame and doubt initiative vs guilt industry vs inferiority identity vs role confusion intimacy vs isolation generativity vs stagnation integrity vs despair
24
Q
trust vs mistrust
A
- If needs are dependable met, infants develop a sense of basic trust (friendly)
- Not, lack of support (hostile)
25
autonomy
- Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
- If negative – toddlers will feel shame about their abilities
- If positive – they feel they can master
26
initiative vs guilt
- Pre-schoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
- Positive; independence/purpose over what they are doing
- Negative; guilt for try to be independent
27
industry vs inferiority
- Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
- Sense of curiosity in things that may not have been appealing
- Eager to learn
- Negative; inferior, loose interest easily
- Competent
28
identity vs role confusion
- Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
- Find a sense of self
- Ideas, morals, relationships etc
- Positive; Assured in yourself
- Negative; confused about self
29
intimacy vs isolation
- Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
- Positive; ability to love, accepting, in a selfless manner
- Negative; love in a selfish manner, have trouble causing close relationships; people don’t understand them
30
generatively vs stagnation
- The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
- Productivity
- Positive; sense of purpose, contributing to the world
- Negative; what they are doing doesn’t have an impact, it’s not enough
31
integrity vs despair
- When reflecting on his/her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
- Positive; sense of wisdom, life experience they can pass on (good/bad)
- Negative; individuals feel a sense of despair, nothing to pass on to next generation, haven’t achieved enough, mistakes haven’t influenced them – not to the extent of mental illness
32
temperament
- - Individual style and frequency of expressing needs and emotions
- Biologically and genetically based
- Influenced by parental expectations and interactions
- Cultural difference and influences
- Reasonable stability over childhood and into adulthood – early signs of ‘personality’
33
classifying infant temperament
easy, difficult, slow to warm up
34
easy
- Regular routines for eating, sleeping etc; mild emotional reactions, easily soothed; readily adaptable to new people and situations
35
difficult
- Does not easily settle into biological rountines; intense emotional reactions, not easily soother; less adaptable
36
slow to warm up
- Just as the name suggests – wary in new situations, requires time and support to settle and adapt
37
attachment
- Enduring and selective emotional bond between two individuals, characterised by mutual affection and desire to maintain proximity
38
attachment theories
- Freud;
- Emphasised that infants became attached to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction
- Erikson;
- First year of life represents the stage of trust vs mistrust – sensitive care and comfort are key to establishing basic trust in infants
- Bowlby;
- Infants and parents are biologically predisposed to form attachments. Attachment is based on parent responsiveness and interaction between infant and parent
39
importance of the first relationship
- Turn head towards human voices
- Recognise own mother’s voice and smell
- Gaze at face-like displays longer
40
is there a critical period?
- Children who have been raised in orphanages show less capacity to attach to care-givers the later they are adopted
- Didn’t do as well – older adopted – over friendly to strangers
41
bowlby
- Proposed an in-built readiness to use soft, warm caregivers as a secure base
42
Basis of attachment - harlow
- Surrogate mother experiments
- Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother
- Doubt onto Freud theory
- It’s about who provides nurturing mum
Only wire – if scared wouldn’t seek help, anxiety, didn’t reproduce as effectively
43
importance of a secure base
- Lack of a secure relationship with a caregiver in the early months of life can impact on brain development and result in long term emotional and cognitive problems
- Normal vs neglect brain
44
assessing attachment
- Mary ainsworth
- Strange situation
- Used with 12-18 month old babies to assess security of attachment:
- Mother and baby playing in room
- Stranger enters
- Mother leaves
- Stranger attempts to engage with baby
- Mother returns
45
Behaviour associated with different attachment styles
Avoidant (A)
Securely attached (B)
Ambivalent/resistant (C)
Disorganised (D)
46
Avoidant (A)
25% - plays around with mother, continue playing when she leaves, ignore on return
47
Securely attached (B)
- 60% - uses mother as a base, play around her, distressed when she leaves, but seek her when she returns
48
Ambivalent/resistant (C)
- 10% - clings to mother, does not explore, is distressed when she leaves, and angry when she returns
49
Disorganised (D)
- – <10% - cautious in play, confused when mother leaves, acts oddly on her return – freezing, screaming, hitting self
50
authoritarian
- Parents impose rules and expect obedience
- Don’t interrupt”
- Why? Because I said so.”
51
authoritative
- Parents are both demanding and responsive
- Set rules, but explain reasons
- Encourage discussion
52
permissive
- Submit to children’s desires
- Make few demands
- Use little punishment
53
rejecting-neglecting
- Disengaged
- Expect little
- Invest little
54
why caregiver behaviour is so important
- Infants develop internal working models of the social world through the ways in which their caregivers interact with them
These models form the basis of self-concept and all later social relationships
55
learning
the adaptive process through which experience modifies pre-existing behaviour and understanding
56
habituation
- the process of adapting to stimuli that do not change (e.g. over time, being inside this classroom, you may no longer recognise the odour, or hear the clock ticking, as these sounds have become a common part of the experience)
Modification of behaviour as a result of the repeated occurrence of a single stimulus.
Stimulus elicits response (i.e., reflex)
Repetition of a stimulus leads to reduced (reflex) response Learning: Safe to ignore the stimulus
57
sensitisation
- an increase to a response in a stimulus (e.g. if you are exploring a spooky house, and hear and unexpected creak at the door, you might scream, run or throw something at the door in response)
58
classical conditioning
- A procedure in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until the neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit a similar response
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS); A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning
- Unconditioned response (UCR); the automatic or unlearned reaction to a stimulus
- Neutral Stimulus (NS); a stimulus that is repeatedly paired to become to conditioned stimulus
- Conditioned stimulus (CS); the originally neutral stimulus that, through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response
- Conditioned response (CR); the response that the conditioned stimulus elicits
59
disgust
- Clearly the association principle is everything when it comes to food
- The idea that something disgusting has been near a favourite dish puts most people off, even when the food is germ-free
60
aversion theory
- electric shock to stop a behaviour
61
operant conditioning
- The learning of a new association between behaviour and its consequences
- Behaviour (response) is voluntary
- Behaviour is modified according to its consequences
- Learn if you want to keep doing/avoid doing
62
positive
adding
63
negative
removing
64
reinforcement
increases probability
65
punishment
decreases probability
66
positive reinforcement
- Pleasant stimulus provided to reinforce behaviour
- Do homework = praise/reward
- Increase likelihood
- E.g. Child eats dinner = they get dessert
67
negative reinforcement
- Stimulus taken away
- Something bad taken away
- Parent nags to clean room – child cleans room = nagging stops
- Increase likelihood
- E.g. letting child leave detention because they completed the work they have been asked to do
68
positive punishment
- Decrease likelihood
- Introducing bad stimulus
- Child misbehaves = threatened to be smacked
- E.g. Bullying another kid = time out
69
negative punishment
- Decrease likelihood
- Pleasant stimulus taken away
- Child steals = internet access taken away
- E.g. send too much time playing video game = video game being take away
70
factors of punishment
- Behaviour; do they know what behaviour is being punished?
- Severity; needs to be sufficiently intense to be long lasting
- Delay; needs to occur immediately after behaviour
- Contingency; must occur consistently when the unwanted behaviour occurs
71
observational learning
- Learning by observing the behaviour of others (models)
- Imitation of a model’s behaviour depends on: prestige of the model, likeability and attractiveness of the model, whether the model was rewarded or punished for their behaviour (vicarious conditioning)
72
memory
- easily infuenced
| - changes over time
73
amnesia
- The loss of memory
- Doesn’t occur – don’t forget everything that happened
- Memory recovery not sudden like in tv shows
- Retrograde amnesia; inability to remember events that occurred before a brain trauma – not everything, hours, weeks or months before trauma
- Anterograde amnesia; inability to remember events that occur after the brain trauma (inability to transfer new information into LTM) – can’t form new memories
74
factors to do with forgetting
- Interference of other memories
- Retroactive interference; new hampers old
- Proactive interference; old interferes with new
- Motivated forgetting
- Drugs and alcohol
- Decay – normal forgetting
- Injuries
- Don’t process every bit of sensory information
- Persuasion of the real event
- Not paying attention – not encoded at all, or only surface features
- Retrieval failure
- Inappropriate retrieval cues
75
types of memory
episodic
semantic
procedural
76
encoding
- getting info in
- automatic processing
- effortful processing
77
shallow processing
Processing only superficial characteristics of a piece of information
Acoustic Encoding Encoding of sound
Visual Encoding
Encoding of picture images
78
deep processing
Semantic Encoding Encoding of meaning Including meaning of words Elaboration
focus on meaning of information to encode it into long-term memor
79
priming
Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus.
Activation not a conscious decision. HOWEVER can effect subsequent
thoughts and actions
80
generalisation
Eliciting a response to stimuli similar but not identical to the
original stimulus.
81
discrimination
Displaying a less pronounced response to stimuli that differ
| from the original stimulus
82
discrimination learning
Involves learning different responses according to which of two or more stimuli are present.
Each of the three different traffic lights (discriminative
stimuli) require a different car driving response.
83
timing
Nearness of events in time
Time between the response and the consequence
Smaller the gap, the more readily the association is learnt
84
predictability
A dependency between events
| How often is the response followed by the consequence (and vice versa)
85
primary reinforcer
Innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink
| Also, relief from aversive stimulus like shock, pain, fear
86
secondary reinforcer
Learned reinforcer
Gains reinforcing power through its association with primary
reinforcer (e.g., through classical conditioning) e.g., money, grades, praise
87
ratio schedules
Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses. Response rate is generally higher
88
interval schedules
Reinforcement is given for the first response after a set period
of time has elapsed.
89
acquisition
Initial learning of the conditioned response (CR) Requires multiple pairings of CS and UCS
90
extinction
The weakening of the conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS
Extinction is not an unlearning of the conditioned response. It is a learned inhibition (suppression) of responding.
91
spontaneous recovery
The re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned
| response
92
sensory memory
Raw perception by senses
Sensory registers hold long enough to be linked and further processed
Fades quickly if not processed
Adaptive
93
STM
Limited amount: Magic number = 7±2
| Limited time: ≈18 seconds
94
LTM
Potentially unlimited capacity/duration Accessed via Working memory
General vs. precise details
95
visuospatial sketchpad
is the section of one's normal mental facility which provides a virtual environment for physical simulation, calculation, visualization and optical memory recall
96
phonological loop
verbal info
