PSYC 545 Flashcards
Construct
What: Constructs are developed to measure complex, abstract concepts that are indirectly observed. They are based on a characteristic which is not directly observable, and is an internal event or process that must be inferred from external behavior. Constructs may be derived from theory, research, or observation.
Why: This is important because a lot of what we have defined is based on patterns and behaviors and creates these constructs we use as clinicians as a lot of what we treat we can not objectively observe or measure. It is defined prior to conducting a study.
EX: The counselor administered a paper and pencil assessment measure that solicited responses related to fidgeting, excessive worrying, difficulty concentrating - all representing the construct of anxiety. Anxiety can be measured indirectly by assessing the prevalence of these bxs.
Correlational Research
What: Correlational research is used to explore and describe the relationships between two or more variables. Correlations look at whether or not variables vary together. Correlations are expressed using a correlation coefficient (r) which is a number between -1 and 1.
Why: The closer to 1 the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the relationship between the variables. Correlation does not equal causation
EX: A researcher is interested in exploring the relationship between socio-economic status and marital satisfaction. They collect survey data to see if the two variables very together and find a moderate positive correlation of r=.41. They don’t know if lower SES causes lower levels of marital satisfaction or if low levels of marital satisfaction somehow lead to lower levels of SES or if some other variable moderates or mediates the relationship.
Criterion-Referenced Scoring/Tests
What: Criterion-referenced tests evaluate a specific skill/ability/task that the test taker must demonstrate. An exam from which decisions are made about an individual’s absolute level of accomplishment of the material covered in that exam, according to some standard reference point. It is usually placed in contrast to norm-referenced tests. There are cut scores of criteria in which needs to be achieved and the relation to other peers does not matter in these tests.
Why: Allows for objective scoring and these scores can be used in making clinical decisions. It clarifies interpretation and the context in which the test is derived.
EX: The comprehensive exam is a criterion- referenced test as there is a threshold of an 80% needed to achieve to pass
Criterion-Related Validity
What: This is the process of comparing a measure to another measure and assessing if they converge or diverge from that measure. It is an index of how well a test correlates with an established standard of comparison.
Predictive criterion validity refers to a test or measure that predicts future performance/success in relation to a particular criterion (SAT -> success in college).
Concurrent criterion validity refers to a concurrent measure taken at same time as test (driver’s test/written test)
Why: This is important in selecting appropriate measures to use in practice as you want it to be valid.
EX: Applicants to a software company are given a test of job aptitude. After six months working at the company, job performance is evaluated. The two scores are compared to assess the criterion validity of the job aptitude test
Cross-Validation
What: This is a procedure used to assess the utility or stability of a statistical model. A data set is randomly divided into two subsets, the first of which is used to develop the model and the second of which is used to test it. The first subset helps with internal consistency and reliability, validity. Then the second set would be the norming sample.
Why: Test an assessment on a particular sample. Look at distribution of sample and one way of telling if your sample is a valid representation of the population is to cross-validate it against a different sample.
EX: In regression analysis, the first subset would be analyzed in order to develop a regression equation, which would then be applied to the remaining subset to see how well it predicts the scores that were actually observed
Cross-Sectional Design
What: A research design in which individuals, typically of different ages or developmental levels, are compared at a single point in time. It is difficult to determine causal relationships and does not measure change over time. Observational in natures, generally less expensive and time consuming
Why: Used to describe characteristics that exist in a community, they are important as they help researchers look at numerous characteristics at one point in time to understand what is happening in a population.
EX: A researcher is interested in how stress levels of individuals change over the course of a lifetime. They have a short timeframe and a small budget to conduct their research and opt for a cross-sectional design which will allow them to capture and compare stress levels of individuals of many ages in a relatively short period of time.
Double-Blind Study
What: This is a type of study in which both the participants and the experimenters interacting with them are unaware of the particular experimental conditions. This can help lead to less experimental bias influencing the results of the experiment. This improves the reliability, validity, and credibility of said study
Why: This allows for testing the treatment group, control group, and the placebo group. The results of the study allows for duplication a lot easier. Although there are many advantages, there are also some disadvantages. It is expensive, generally has low representation, it can be impossible for testing therapeutic intervention, and has little control over negative reactions to the treatment or placebo
EX: A study testing the efficacy of a new SSRI for anxiety is using a double-blind study. Neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of who is in the treatment group and who is receiving a placebo. This setup ensures that the experimenters do not make subtle gestures accidentally signaling who is receiving the drug and who is not, and that experimenter expectations could not affect the studies outcome.
Ecological Validity
What: This is the degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world. It can be threatened by experimenter bias, oversimplification of a real-world situation, or naïve sampling strategies. Is the sample representative of the population?
Why: This is an important part of research as the application to the population and real world is key and the reason most studies are done.
EX: A researcher wants to study the effects of alcohol on sociability, so he administers beer to a group of subjects and has them interact with each other. To increase their ecological validity, he decides to carry out the study in an actual bar.
Experimental Research
What: An independent variable is manipulated in order to see what effect it will have on a dependent variable. Researchers try to *control for any other variables (confounds) that may affect the dependent variable(s). Includes a testable research question, a manipulation of the independent variable, measurement of the dependent variable, and random assignment to group or within-subject control.
Why: This is important when looking for causation, not just correlation between variables.
EX: A researcher conducts an experimental research study to examine the relationship between caffeine intake and anxiety ratings. The study administers various levels of caffeine (the independent variable) to the low, high, and no caffeine groups. The participants are then asked to report their anxiety levels (the dependent variable). They found that those who had more caffeine reported feeling more anxious
Hypothesis
What: This is an empirically testable proposition about some fact, behavior, relationship, or the like, usually based on theory, that states an expected outcome resulting from specific conditions or assumptions. Prediction, educated guess made prior to running a study based on theory or research.
Why: Hypotheses help to focus the research and bring it to a meaningful conclusion. Without hypotheses, it is impossible to test theories. Important to enable researchers not only to discover relationships between variables but also predict relationships
EX: When a woman in New York City was murdered in full view of dozens of onlookers, Psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané developed a hypothesis about the relationship between helping behavior and the number of bystanders present, and that hypothesis was subsequently supported by research. It is now known as the bystander effect
Longitudinal Design
What: type of research study that looks at the same individuals over a period of time, usually several years or more. Can study age changes but only within one cohort; provides a wealth of info. There are a few types, including, a panel study in which randomly chosen individuals are evaluated and a cohort study in which individuals possessing some common characteristics are evaluated
Why: This is important because researchers can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables as well as changes and patterns. Benefits: eliminate error because the sample is the same but threat to validity of attrition in this study
EX: You conduct a study of the long term effects of postpartum depression in mothers on their infants. You assess the children every 6 months for 20 years to see the developmental and psychological effects of having a mother with postpartum depression
Program Evaluation
What: a systematic assessment of the outcomes of a program, in order to evaluate its effectiveness and to inform modifications to the program. There is an emphasis on program operation and outcomes so this process is used to improve efficiency of programs. The steps to this are problem identification and definition (needs assessment), program development, program implementation (fidelity) and program evaluation. The program is evaluated through within or between systems evaluation, process indicators like social validity and treatment integrity, a pre/post-test and outcome measures
Why: This is important in a school setting if an issue arises among the way a system is working
EX:
Quasi-Experimental Research
What: This type of research does not randomly assign participants to a group or condition or manipulate the independent variable. The dependent variable is still measured but utilizes the independent variable with pre-existing differences. Cannot fully control for loss of internal or external validity due to risks that would go with the variable, since the variable itself might be harmful i.e. depression, smoking; subjects cannot be randomly assigned.
Why: This is important if your research question is asking about qualities of a person, you cannot change. Also includes any design that appears to be experimental without random assignment.
EX: A researcher is studying the effects of social media on self-esteem. The participants come in already belonging to the amount of social media they use
Random Sampling
What: In research design, the process of selecting a sample randomly from the population to better represent the entire group as a whole; that is, all members of the population being studied have an equal chance of being chosen/sampled. The mean of a random sample is a good estimate of population mean
Why: This type of sampling is important as it allows the results of the study to be generalized to the larger population and has high external validity.
EX: A researcher is doing an experiment on college students and must select a sample of students from a larger population. To ensure that they are not biased in their selection of students, they assign each student a number and then randomly draw numbers to create the sample. This is an example of random sampling
Scientific Methodology
What: This is a set of procedures, guidelines, assumptions, and attitudes required for the organized and systematic collection, interpretation, and verification of data and the discovery of reproducible evidence, enabling laws and principles to be stated or modified. This method is used to create hypotheses in research to attempt to examine relationships and make predictions about behavior and interventions to adjust behavior
Why: This method is important because it allows for replication among other researchers and helped to aid psychology in being recognized as a science.
EX: A researcher wants to understand the relationship between caffeine and sociability. First, they form a hypothesis that caffeine consumption increases sociability. Next, they conduct an experiment and collect the relevant data. Then they analyze their results. Finally, they draw the conclusion that caffeine increases sociability, based on their results.
