PSYC 500: Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Accommodation
A term used in Piagetian theory to describe what occurs when new information or experiences cause a person to adapt their existing schemas or organized patterns or thought to fit with the new information. The process of accommodation occurs through an interaction with one’s environment.
EX: A college freshman from a small conservative town seeks out counseling services on campus. She tells the therapist that she likes her roommate but doesn’t feel like she should because of her roommate’s strong liberal political views. She had never been exposed to peers who thought much differently than her and had always believed that people with liberal political views were “socialists” and “radical.” Through this new experience, the student undergoes the process of accommodation by exploring with the therapist what it means to like/accept someone with drastically different opinions.
Androgyny
A phenomenon found in sociocultural theory when both masculine and feminine characteristics are present in a single individual. Said characteristics are in reference to the person’s behaviors and/or emotions and does not always include physical characteristics that typically display masculine versus feminine traits.
EX: A client who identifies as lesbian refers to herself as “butch.” She has always enjoyed watching football and wrestling and says she is “just one of the guys.” The client displays masculine traits via short hair and wearing men’s clothing, though she identifies as a female. With that being said, she describes feelings of distress when being mistaken for a man (particularly in the women’s restroom) and states “I just don’t really belong in either [bathroom].” The client explores with the therapist what it means to be androgynous and not feel like she fits in a socially constructed box of gender.
Assimilation
In Piagetian theory, assimilation refers to how an individual takes in new information or experiences and then incorporates that into a pre-existing schema without altering the original schema.
EX: A client holds the core belief, or schema, that he is “unlovable.” Through work with his therapist, he takes the risk of asking a girl at his school out to dinner via text. She does not reply to the message, blocks his phone number, and avoids all possible interaction. The client takes this new information into his existing schema of unlovability and thus reinforces his belief/schema. Because the schema was already existing prior to the experience and it remained unchanged following the experience, the client has undergone the process of assimilation.
Attachment
A period of relational development in infancy where the infant emotionally bonds with their primary caregiver in one of four ways: secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, avoidant attachment, or disorganized attachment. Though these attachment styles are developed in infancy, they often affect relationships well into adulthood.
EX: A mother brings her 7-year-old child in for counseling and states that she “has a hissy fit” anytime the mother tries to leave her side. The mother states that getting the child to school is “a nightmare” and on more than one occasion has “just given in” and kept her daughter home from school. Though the 7-year-old is clearly out of infancy, her attachment style still affects her interactions/relationships. The mother hopes that through therapy, the child’s anxiety about the mother leaving will be eased.
Child Abuse
The physical emotional, sexual, and/or neglectful maltreatment of a child, usually by a parent, guardian, or caregiver. This experience can cause pathology or developmental/social problems in a child. A therapist is legally a mandated reporter, meaning they are required to report any suspicion of child abuse to relevant authorities.
EX: An elementary teacher reports to the school counselor that one of her 8-year-old students displays rather promiscuous behavior and seems to have advanced sexual knowledge. She also states that the student “can never focus.” The school counselor suspects the child is the victim of sexual abuse and reports the appropriate authorities. Following an investigation, the child is removed from her abuser’s household and placed in her grandparents’ care. The grandparents sought out weekly therapy for their granddaughter from a local provider. The teacher and school counselor soon notice a significant positive change in the student both academically and socially.
Classical Conditioning
A term coined by Ivan Pavlov following his experimentation on canine salivation where he created an association between the sound of a bell and the presence of food. In classical conditioning, a novel behavior is learned by association or by pairing the behavior with a particular stimulus. The stimulus then elicits a behavioral reaction after repeated pairings, and ultimately the behavior alone elicits the same reaction.
EX: A woman seeks out counseling to “get over [her] fear of bridges.” The woman states that she drives 45 minutes out her way to/from work each day to avoid driving across a large bridge. Through further exploration it is discovered that the woman has experienced three separate car accidents over her lifetime, all of which occurred on or near a bridge. The woman has become classically conditioned to fear bridges because of her brain’s pairing that bridges equate car accidents. Though she has not been in a car accident in over 10 years, she still feels fearful because of this classical conditioning process.
Cohort
A group of people who were born at a similar time and share a common experience/characteristic within a defined period of time. Cohorts are often used in cross-sectional designs and developmental research to determine cohort effect, which is any belief or characteristic shared by people in the same cohort that is influenced by pressures or challenges typical of that group.
EX: A young woman tells her therapist that her elderly grandfather has “refused” to support her financially ever since she turned 18 – she was raised/supported by her grandfather her entire life. She claims, “he has more than enough to go around and I wouldn’t have to work 3 jobs.” Through further exploration, the client and therapist discuss how her grandfather is part of a generational cohort that was raised during the Great Depression. The client had never thought about her grandfather’s refusal with this perspective and ultimately fostered more empathy/understanding for his cohort’s anxiety about spending money.
Continuity vs. Non-Continuity
A theoretical debate carried out by developmentalists concerning whether development occurs in a continuous or discontinuous manner. The continuous theory of development states that development is gradual and cumulative over time, whereas the discontinuous theory of development states that development occurs is distinct changes.
EX: A concerned mother brings her 5-year-old into the clinic and expresses concern that her son is still unable to understand tracing letters and overall penmanship. Her son turned 5-years-old two days prior to the clinic appointment. A developmentalist with a continuous theory of development would likely not express great concern, as their understanding of development (including writing skills) occurs gradually. Whereas a developmentalist with a more noncontinuous theory of development may have expected a distinct change in writing skills by age 5.
Control Group
In a research design, the control group is nearly identical to the experimental group except that there is no manipulation of the independent variable or treatment in this group. The control group data serves as a baseline against which he effects of treatment can be measured.
EX: Four clinicians are assigned by researchers to implement a clinical trial for the treatment of attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder (ADHD). Researchers are interested in whether this new treatment will be more effective than standard treatments for ADHD. Clients with ADHD are randomly assigned to either the treatment condition (i.e. receive the clinical trial treatment) or the control condition (i.e. receive standard treatment). Both groups have identical procedures, the only difference being that the clients in the control group do not receive the new treatment.
Correlational Research
A study of the relationship or association between two variables – a causal relationship cannot be determined using correlational research. A positive correlation occurs when both variables increase or decrease at the same time, whereas a negative correlation occurs when one variable increases while the other decreases.
EX: Psychologists are interested in the relationship between caffeine intake and stress levels in undergraduate students. After collecting data and running the appropriate analyses (i.e. likely Pearson’s r), the psychologists find that the greater the caffeine intake the higher the reported stress level. This would be a positive correlation finding as both variables increase over time. Due to the nature of the research question and design, no causal relationship can be determined if caffeine intake causes increased stress (or vice versa).
Critical Period
A period in development where growth must occur or it will occur later with difficulty or not at all. This critical period is a fixed period of time that takes place early on in development during which certain behaviors emerge, such as language development. One is particularly vulnerable to environmental factors that can interfere with normal development of these behaviors.
EX: A family court judge orders mandatory therapy for an adolescent recently placed in foster care. The adolescent was severely neglected prior to foster placement and was often left without face-to-face interaction or conversation. Due to this neglect, the adolescent’s language skills are severely underdeveloped. The critical period for language development often ranges from late toddler-years to puberty. Because the adolescent is now outside of this critical period range, the therapist understands that there will be greater difficulty in language development skills.
Cross-Sectional Design
An observational study of a large group of people that share similar characteristics but differ by one key characteristic. Observing individuals who are similar on most characteristics allows researchers to limit effects of extraneous variables. This type of design measures participants at a specific point in time rather than over a long period of time and it does not involve any manipulation of variables.
EX: Psychologists are interested in how age possibly affects which political candidate individuals voted for in the 2020 Presidential election. The specific point in time, election day circa 2020, is observed through a lens of already established factors (i.e. age and political party/candidate vote). The key characteristic that differs was age at the time of the election.
Defense Mechanism
A term proposed by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. A defense mechanism is a mental process through which someone’s mind tries to cope with a concept they have deemed unacceptable. Defense mechanisms are typically unconscious reactions and are believed to be normal human processes, though psychopathology can occur when a defense mechanism is overused. The process of defense mechanisms is generally conceptualized as the ego balancing the desires of the id with the restrictions of the superego.
EX: An 18-year-old female presents to therapy with an extensive trauma history. The therapist notices that the client smiles/laughs/makes jokes, seemingly uncontrollably, anytime they discuss details of the trauma(s). The client’s humor deflection is understood as a defense mechanism against the feelings of distress. The therapist acknowledges this observation and explores the function of the behavior/defense mechanism with the client.
Developmental Level
A stage in development where one generally achieves certain milestones or growth markers within a certain time frame, indicating normal progression or growth. These markers allow one to know if an individual is progressing at a normal rate or if there are potential problems that need to be addressed.
EX: A father brings his 11-year-old son into therapy and expresses concern in his son’s lack of interest in peers and building friendships. The father tells the therapist “It’s not just that he doesn’t have friends, it’s that he doesn’t seem to care.” The therapist, equipped with the knowledge the friendships become particularly important in middle-childhood, understands the child’s disinterest in peers as a concern for the child’s development.
Egocentrism
A feature of Piaget’s preoperational stage, the second stage of his theory of cognitive development that lasts from ages 2 to 6. With egocentrism the child’s thoughts generally center around themselves and unable to understand a situation from another’s perspective. According to Piaget, an egocentric child assumes that all other people think and feel the same as they do. This feature is eliminated when the child moves into the concrete operational stage.
EX: A concerned mother brings her 5-year-old to therapy and complains that child behaves in ways that are “manipulative” and “selfish.” The therapist would provide the mother with psychoeducation about Piaget’s preoperational stage and hopefully help ease her anxieties about her child’s “selfish” behavior. At this point in development, it is entirely appropriate for the child to expresses features of egocentrism.
Extinction
A feature of operant conditioning in behaviorist theory. Extinction refers to the eventual decrease of a previously reinforced conditioned behavior upon the discontinuation of reinforcement of this behavior. The unwanted behavior often increases in frequency as an attempt to re-establish reinforcement. Following this extinction burst, the behavior will decrease in frequency and may discontinue entirely depending on the behavioral goal. Extinguishing a behavior is not always permanent as the behavior may spontaneously recover after a length of time.
EX: A behaviorist-based therapist works with a 12-year-old boy diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The boy consistently picks his nose, often to the point of making the insides of his nostrils bleed. The therapist positively reinforces the boy for not engaging in the unwanted behavior (i.e. picking one’s nose). At the start of the treatment, the therapist notices a sharp increase in the frequency of the behavior but is not overly concerned as they are knowledgeable about the phenomenon of an extinction burst. Over time, the boy’s unwanted nose-picking behavior decreases even without the addition of positive reinforcement.
Genotype
A term that refers to the complete genetic makeup of an individual with contribution of dominate and/or recessive genes from both parents. The genotype represents the individual’s exact genetic makeup and full hereditary information. This is important because genotype determines the available genes to be passed on to offspring and has implications for counseling for genetic testing of genetic disorders.
EX: An adult-client diagnosed with Bipolar I Disorder expresses concern to her therapist that her future children will also struggle with bipolar disorder due to the hereditary component of the disorder. The client has completed genetic testing at her physician’s office and her genotype showed the presence of biomarkers commonly associated with bipolar disorder.
Genotype-Environmental Relationship
The relationship between one’s genetic material and genetic potential are and how environmental factors influence whether or not one reaches that genetic potential. A rich, encouraging environment will facilitate one’s genetic potential while a poor, discouraging environment will hinder it.
EX: A client’s biological mother was diagnosed with schizophrenia long before the client was born. The client was raised by her aunt/uncle in a very healthy environment. The client states that she “doesn’t want to end up like her mom.” Even though the client may have the genetic material for developing schizophrenia, the encouraging environment of her aunt/uncle’s will help facilitate adaptive genetic potential and hopefully keep the client for developing the disorder. The genotype-environment relationship can either propel a client or hinder a client depending on the environmental conditions.
