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4th year 2nd sem > Psyc 3607- Test I > Flashcards

Psyc 3607- Test I Flashcards

1
Q

personality

A

the enduring traits and characteristics that lead a person to behave in relatively predictable ways across a range of situations

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2
Q

personality disorders

A

inflexible and maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that arise across a range of situations and lead to distress or dysfunction

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3
Q

characteristics of personality disorders

A
  • heterogenous group of disorders
  • long standing, pervasive and inflexible patterns of behaviour
  • inner experience that deviates from cultural expectations, causes impairment in social and occupational functioning, and can cause emotional distress
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4
Q

what are the ABCs of psychological functioning

A

affect, behaviour, and cognition

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5
Q

affect

A

range, intensity, and changeability of emotions and emotional responsiveness

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6
Q

behaviour

A

ability to control impulses and interactions with others

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7
Q

cognition

A

perceptions and interpretations of events, other people, and onself

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8
Q

neurological factors of personality disorders

A
  • genetics are the most influential
    • there is no evidence that genes underlie specific personality disorders, but they do influence temperament which plays a major role in personality disorders and create predisposition to develop personality disorders
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9
Q

temperament

A

aspect of personality that reflects a person’s typical affective state and emotional reactivity via their effects on brain structure and function

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10
Q

three elements of each personality disorder

A

automatic thoughts, interpersonal strategies, and cognitive distortions

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11
Q

psychological factors of personality disorders

A
  • personality traits involve sets of learned behaviours and emotional reactions to specific stimuli
  • what is learned is in part shaped by the consequences of behaviour and how people respond to the behaviour
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12
Q

diagnosing personality disorders

A
  • to be diagnosed with a personality disorder, maladaptive traits:
    • should date back at least to adolescence
    • should not be related to a medical condition, substance use or abuse, or another psychological disorder
    • are resistant to treatment but may improve over time
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13
Q

other traits of individuals with personality disorders

A
  • those with personality disorders tend to be less educated and more likely to have never married or be separated or divorced
  • 30% of individuals who die by suicide and 40% who attempt suicide are thought to have a personality disorder
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14
Q

what are personality disorder diagnoses based on

A
  • what the patient says and patterns in the way it is said (pattern of complaints)
  • personality inventories or questionnaires
  • collateral information from family members
    *clinicians should take into account the individual’s culture, ethnicity, and social background
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15
Q

issues when diagnosing personality disorders

A
  • culture- ensuring functioning is not merely a reflection of culture
  • gender- diagnosis bias for certain disorders for certain genders
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16
Q

criticisms of the DSM-V on the personality clusters

A
  • treats personality disorders as categorical versus on a continua
  • criteria creates an arbitrary cutoff between normal and abnormal
  • clusters were organized by superficial commonalities (disorders are not distinct from one another)
  • high comorbidity
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17
Q

cluster A

A
  • odd/eccentric
  • includes paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid
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18
Q

cluster b

A
  • dramatic/erratic
  • includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic
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19
Q

cluster c

A
  • anxious/fearful
  • includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive
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20
Q

paranoid personality disorder characteristics

A
  • persistent and pervasive mistrust and suspiciousness
  • tendency to interpret other’s motives as hostile
  • expect to be mistreated or exploited by others
  • reluctant to confide in others
  • better able to evaluate whether their suspicions are based on reality (perceived threats are of known individuals)
  • cannot be easily persuaded that these beliefs do not reflect reality
  • tend to be difficult to get along with
    • secretive, argumentative, hold a grudge
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21
Q

schizoid personality disorder characteristics

A
  • no cognitive perceptual symptoms (differentiates from schizotypal)
  • no desire for or enjoyment of relationships
  • appear dull, bland, aloof and rarely report strong emotions
  • have no interest in sex
  • experience few pleasurable activities
  • indifferent to praise and criticism
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22
Q

schizotypal characteristics

A
  • interpersonal difficulties, increased social anxiety
  • eccentric symptoms identical to prodromal and residual phases of schizophrenia
    • odd beliefs and magical thinking, recurrent illusions, odd speech, ideas of reference, suspiciousness, paranoid ideation
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23
Q

understanding cluster A PD

A
  • schizotypal is the most thoroughly researcher
  • neurological factors that contribute to schizophrenia also contribute to schizotypal (genes, prenatal enviro, birth complications)
  • first degree relatives of patients with cluster A are more likely to develop a schizophrenia related disorder
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24
Q

treating odd/eccentric PD

A
  • very little research into treatment
  • most patients are uninterested in treatment and reluctant if urged or forced into it
  • CBT may be beneficial for increasing social and other adaptive skills
  • low doses of antipsychotics may be used to treat schizotypal
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25
Q

avoidant characteristics

A
  • fearful in social situations
  • keenly sensitive to possibility of criticism, rejection, or disapproval
  • reluctant to enter relationships unless sure will be liked
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26
Q

dependent characteristics

A
  • lack self reliance
  • overly dependent on others
  • intense need to be taken care of
  • uncomfortable when alone
  • subordinate own needs
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27
Q

obsessive compulsive characteristics

A
  • perfectionist approach to life
  • preoccupied with details, rules, schedules
  • serious, rigid, inflexible, formal
  • unable to discard worn out and useless objects
  • does not include the obsessions and compulsions that define OCD
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28
Q

etiology of cluster C

A
  • unknown (little data exists)
  • speculation about cases have focused on parent- child relationships
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29
Q

borderline personality disorder characteristics

A
  • impulsivity and instability in relationships, mood, and self image
  • attitudes and feelings toward other vary dramatically
  • emotions are erratic and can shift abruptly
  • argumentative, irritable, sarcastic, quick to take offence
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30
Q

etiology of BPD

A
  • Linehan’s diathesis stress theory
  • biological
    • runs in families, poor functioning in the frontal lobes
  • environmental
    • parental neglect and abuse are typically reported by BPD patients
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31
Q

Linehan’s diathesis stress theory

A

Biological precursor coupled with an environmental stressor which creates/maintains the development/presentation of a disorder

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32
Q

glutamate and BPD

A
  • glutamate is the most abundant excitatory NT in the vertebrate NS and crucial in the functioning of rational cognitive functions (reward anticipation, decision making, etc.)
  • glutamate is lower in individuals with BPD resulting in
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33
Q

partner violence and BPD

A
  • people with borderline PD are often aggressive in relationships
    • BPD individuals set impossibly high standards for others and blame their partner when things go wrong and they can’t meet that standard
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34
Q

histrionic personality disorder characteristics

A
  • overly dramatic and attention seeking
  • use physical appearance to draw attention
  • display emotion extravagantly
  • self centred
  • over concerned with their attractiveness
  • inappropriately sexually provocative and seductive
  • speech may be impressionistic and lacking in detail
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35
Q

narcissistic personality disorder characteristics

A
  • grandiose view of own uniqueness and abilities
  • preoccupied with fantasies of great success
  • require almost constant attention and excessive admiration
  • lack empathy, envious of others, arrogant, exploitative, entitled
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36
Q

antisocial personality disorder characteristics

A
  • conduct disorder present before 15 and pattern of antisocial behaviour continuing through adulthood are major components
  • irresponsible and antisocial behaviour
  • works only inconsistently, breaks laws
  • irritable and physically aggressive
  • impulsive and fail to plan ahead
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37
Q

psychopathy characteristics

A
  • poverty of emotions both positive and negative
  • lack of remorse and no sense of shame or morality
  • superficially charming
  • manipulates others for personal gain
  • grandiose sense of self worth
  • pathological lying and failure to accept responsibility
  • shallow affect
  • normal to high on IQ test
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38
Q

psychopathy etiology

A
  • 2 pathways lead to the development of psychopathy
    • fundamental psychopathy- caused by biological predisposition
    • secondary psychopathy- relies on environmental exposure
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39
Q

antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy

A
  • related by not identical
  • 20% of people with APD score high on the psychopathy checklist
  • all psychopaths are diagnosed with APD but many individuals with APD do not meet the criteria for psychopathy
  • up to 80% of convicted felons meet criteria for APD but only 25% meet criteria for psychopathy
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40
Q

psychopathy and aggression

A
  • psychopaths incarcerated in Canada perpetuate 2x as many violent crimes as non-psychopathic criminals
  • psychopaths commit more violence and heinous acts of violence
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41
Q

development of psychopathy

A
  • begins in early childhood with callous and unemotional traits, delinquent behaviours, and impulsivity
  • macdonald triad
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42
Q

macdonald triad

A
  • an extended period of bedwetting past the preschool years not due to any medical problem
  • precocious sadism, often expressed as profound animal abuse
  • fire starting
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43
Q

role of the family and development of APD and psychopathy

A
  • lack of affection, severe parental rejection, physical abuse, inconsistencies in disciplining, failure to teach child responsibility toward others
  • limitations include:
    • harsh or inconsistent disciplinary practices that are reactions to the child’s anti social behaviour
    • many individuals who come from disturbed backgrounds do not become psychopaths
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44
Q

genetic correlates of ADP and psychopathy

A
  • criminality and APD have heritable components
  • increase in concordance for MZ than DZ pairs
  • supported by adoption studies
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45
Q

psychopathy at the genetic level

A
  • “warrior gene” is a high risk gene for psychopathy and leads to low MAOA
  • gene is sex linked on the X chromosome, thus why most psychopaths are M
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46
Q

fearlessness hypothesis

A

anxiety provoking events have little effect on those with APD

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47
Q

emotion and psychopathy

A
  • unresponsive to punishments- no conditioned fear responses
  • have decreased levels of skin conductance in resting situations
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48
Q

shock avoidance in psychopaths

A
  • avoidance learning is assumed to be mediated by fear
  • lykken found that psychopaths were more motivated with finding the correct lever to navigate the maze rather than on avoiding the shock
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49
Q

antisocial personality disorder treatment

A
  • treating depression and anxiety
  • treatment must be responsive to the patient’s interpersonal needs
  • important to form a therapeutic alliance to make them feel the treatment is voluntary and relevant
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50
Q

psychopathy treatment

A
  • treatment should focus on changing the behaviour rather than on changing the core personality characterisitcs
  • generally there is neither cure nor effective treatment; there are no medications to instil empathy and psychopaths who undergo traditional talk therapy only become more adept at manipulating others
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51
Q

anxiety

A
  • an affective state whereby an individual feels threatened by the potential occurrence of a future negative event
  • characterized by tension, apprehension, and worry
  • future oriented
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52
Q

fear

A

emotional response to a real or perceived current threat

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53
Q

panic

A

extreme fear when there is nothing to be afraid of

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54
Q

fight or flight response

A
  • increase in HR, breathing, and palm sweating
  • dilation of pupils
  • underlies the fear and anxiety involved in almost all anxiety disorders
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55
Q

anxiety and comorbidity

A
  • 50% of individuals with an anxiety disorder are also depressed (three part model)
  • 10-25% of individuals with anxiety disorders abuse or are dependent on alcohol
    • with phobias, abuse develops after the anxiety symptoms
    • with disorders, abuse may occur before or after the onset of symptoms
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56
Q

tripartite model of anxiety and depression

A
  • high level of negative emotions (both)
  • low level of positive emotions (depression)
  • physiological hyperarousal (anxiety)
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57
Q

generalized anxiety disorder characteristics

A
  • persistent and excessive anxiety often about minor items
  • chronic, uncontrollable worry about everything
  • primarily focused on family, finances, work, and illness
  • often it is not the amount of stress in the patient’s life, but the anxiety and worry they experience
  • difficulty concentrating, tiring easily, restlessness, irritability, high level of muscle tension
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58
Q

GAD etiology

A
  • decreased arousal due to highly responsive parasympathetic NS
    • worry temporarily reduces arousal which suppresses negative emotions and produces muscle tension
  • dopamine in frontal lobes do not function normally
  • possibly dysfunction in GABA, serotonin, norepinehrine, and other NT
  • 15-40% heritability
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59
Q

neurobiological perspective of GAD

A
  • benzodiazepines are often effective in treating anxiety
    • receptor in the brain for benzodiazepines are linked to the inhibitory NT GABA
    • benzodiazepines may decrease anxiety by the increase in realize of GABA
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60
Q

psychological factors of GAD

A
  • include three characteristic modes of thinking and behaving
    • being particularly alert for possible threats (hypervigilence)
    • feeling that the worrying is out of control
    • sensing that the worrying prevents panic, giving an illusion of coping
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61
Q

panic attack

A
  • person suffers a sudden and often inexplicable attack of alarming symptoms: laboured breathing, heart palpitations, nausea and chest pain, feelings of choking or being smothered, dizziness, sweating, trembling, intense apprehension, terror, and feelings of impending doom
  • may also experience depersonalization and derealization
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62
Q

panic disorder characteristics

A
  • panic attacks
    • may be cued (associated with particular objects, situations, or sensations) or uncured (spontaneous, not associated with a particular object or situation)
    • can occur anytime, even when sleeping
  • diagnosed as with or without agoraphobia
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63
Q

panic disorder prevalence

A
  • typically begins in adolescence
  • onset is associated with stressful life experience
  • > 80% of individuals diagnosed with an anxiety disorder also experience panic attacks
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64
Q

agoraphobia

A
  • persistent avoidance of situations that might trigger panic
    • avoidance of places in which it would be embarrassing or hard to obtain help in case of a panic attack
  • extreme agoraphobics may become housebound
  • usually develops within the first year of recurrent panic attacks
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65
Q

panic disorder etiology

A
  • biological
    • heritable- 5x as likely to have PD if a parent has it
  • neurological
    • people who experience panic attacks have a lower threshold for detecting oxygen in the blood leading to hyperventilation and the strong sense of needing to escape
66
Q

learning theory

A
  • first panic attack is a response to a stressful or dangerous life event (true alarm)
  • initial bodily sensations of panic become false alarms associated with panic attacks
    • individuals comes to fear interoceptive cues or the external environment in which they had the attack and normal sensations become associated with subsequent attacks
  • sensations of arousal elicit panic attacks (learned alarms)
  • fear of fear
  • avoidance of behaviours or situations where sensations might occur begin
67
Q

cognitive theory

A
  • focus on how a person interprets and then responds to alarm signals from the body
  • misinterpretation of normal bodily sensations as indicating catastrophic effects
68
Q

fear of fear hypothesis

A
  • suggests that agoraphobia is not a fear of public places but a fear of having a panic attack in public
  • misinterpretation of physiological arousal symptoms
69
Q

social stressor on panic disorder

A
  • tend to have had a higher than average number of stressful events during childhood and adolescence
  • presence of a close relative/friend helps decrease catastrophic thinking and panicking in agoraphobia
    • may perpetuate the disorder by making the person feel more alone when alone
70
Q

social phobia

A
  • persistent, irrational fears linked generally to the presence of other people
  • can be extremely debilitating
  • tend to avoid situations in which they might be evaluated because they fear they will reveal signs of anxiousness or behave in an embarrassing way
71
Q

generalized social phobia

A
  • involves many different interpersonal situations
  • has an earlier age of onset and is more comorbid with other disorders
72
Q

specific social phobia

A

involves intense fear of one particular sensation

73
Q

social phobia characteristics

A
  • very sensitive to criticism and rejection; worried about meeting expectations of others
  • dread to be evaluated and may not perform to their potential
    • diminished performance challenges self esteem increasing anxiety
  • less likely to be in a romantic relationship
  • may not complete school or advance at work due to avoidance of social interactions
74
Q

neurological factors of social phobia

A
  • amygdala is strongly activated when afraid and when shown faces
  • hippocampus and the cortical areas near the amygdala do not function normally
  • dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine may function abnormally
75
Q

heritability of social phobia

A

heritability is 37% on average

76
Q

cognitive biases and distortions of social phobia

A
  • see the world as a very dangerous place
  • become chronically hyper vigilant for potential social threats and negative evaluations by others
  • distorted emotional reasoning as proof that they will be judged negatively
77
Q

classical conditioning of social phobia

A

social situation paired with a negative social experience produces a conditioned emotional response

78
Q

operant conditioning of social phobia

A
  • avoidance of social situations in order to decrease the probability of an uncomfortable experience
  • negative reinforcement of avoidance behaviour because avoidance decreases anxiety
79
Q

social factors of social phobia

A
  • parent child interactions
    • extremely over protective parents may lead children to cope with their anxiety through avoidance
  • different cultures emphasize different concerns about social interactions and these concerns influence the specific nature of social phobia
    • fear of offending others in Asian cultures; fear of humiliation in western cultures
80
Q

phobia

A
  • disrupting, fear mediated avoidance that is out of proportion to the danger actually posed and is recognized by the suffered as groundless
  • broken down into 3 subtypes: agoraphobia, specific, and social
81
Q

specific phobia

A
  • unwarranted fears caused by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation
  • subdivided to 5 sources of fear
82
Q

5 sources of a specific phobia

A
  • blood, injuries, and injections
  • situations (planes, elevators, enclosed spaces)
  • animals
  • natural environment (heights, water)
  • other
83
Q

neurological factors of phobias

A
  • amygdala appears to have a hair trigger
  • anxiety evoked by specific phobias is associated with too little of GABA
  • different phobias appear to be influenced to different degrees by genetics and the environment
84
Q

psychological factors of phobias

A
  • classical conditioning
    • UCS results in UCR
    • UCS is paired with CS to result in UCR
    • eventually CS results in CR
  • extinction occurs, so you need operant conditioning for the maintenance of the phobia
85
Q

behaviourism

A
  • unrealistic fears of usually harmless things; believed these people myst have had a bad experience with the target of the phobia at some point
  • recent research argues that conditioning cannot fully account for the onset of phobias
86
Q

behavioural theories of phobias

A
  • focus on learning as the way in which phobias are acquired
  • several types of learning may be involved: avoidance conditioning, modelling, prepared learning
87
Q

avoidance conditioning

A
  • reactions are learned avoidance responses (negative reinforcement)
  • avoidance conditioning formulation
  • phobias develop from two related sets of learning:
    • via classical conditioning
    • person learns to reduce conditioned fear by escaping from or avoiding CS (operant)
88
Q

modeling

A
  • person learns fear through imitating the reactions of others
  • learning of fear by observing others is referred to as vicarious learning
89
Q

prepared learning

A
  • people tend to fear only certain objects and events
    • fear spiders, snakes, heights; but not lambs
  • some fears reflect classical conditioning, but only to stimuli which an organisms is physiologically prepared to be sensitive
90
Q

cognitive diathesis

A
  • the tendency to believe that similar traumatic experiences will occur in the future or not being able to control the environment
  • important in developing a phobia
91
Q

cognitive theories of phobias

A
  • focus on how people’s thought processes can serve as a diathesis and on how thoughts can maintain a phobia
  • anxiety is related to being more likely to:
    • attend to negative stimuli
    • interpret ambiguous information as threatening
    • believe that negative events are more likely than positive ones to reoccur
92
Q

obsessions

A
  • intrusive and recurring thoughts, impulses, and images
  • most frequent obsessions include: fear of contamination, fear of expressing some sexual or aggressive impulse, and hypochondriacal fears of bodily dysfunction
93
Q

compulsion

A

a repetitive behaviour or mental act that the person feels drive to preform to reduce the distress caused by obsessive thoughts or to prevent some calamity from occurring

94
Q

OCD in children

A
  • childhood prevalence of 0.5-1%; gender ratio is equal
  • most common obsessions are germs, fear of harm to self or others, need for symmetry
  • most common compulsions are washing and cleaning, checking, counting, repeating, touching, and straightening
  • children change obsessions/compulsions more than adults
95
Q

thought fusion action

A
  • believing that having a certain though increases the likelihood that thought will come true
  • belief that having a thought is equal to behaving in that way; seen more in religious people
96
Q

psychological factors of OCD

A
  • obsession are caused by the person’s reactions to intrusive thoughts
  • trying to suppress obsession can increase their frequency (rebound effect)
97
Q

rachman’s theory of obsessions in OCD

A
  • unwanted intrusive thoughts are the roots of obsessions
  • obsessions often involve catastrophic misinterpretations of negative intrusive thoughts
  • person is compelled to engage in suppression, neutralization, and avoidance
98
Q

neurological factors of OCD

A
  • may be caused by dysfunctional connections among the frontal lobes, thalamus, and basal ganglia
  • both the frontal cortex and basal ganglia function abnormally in OCD patients
99
Q

impulse control disorders

A
  • onset usually occurs between 7 and 15
  • impulsivity can be thought of as seeking a small, short term gain at the expense of a large, long term loss
  • those with the disorder repeatedly demonstrate failure to resist their behavioural impetuosity
  • impulse control disorders are considered to be part of the OCD spectrum
100
Q

kleptomania

A
  • occurs in fewer than 5% of shoplifters
  • more common in F than M
  • average age is 35; some report the onset as early as age 5
  • evidence linking it with abnormalities in serotonin
  • stressors, like a major loss, may precipitate kelptomaniac behaviour
101
Q

trichotillomania

A
  • hair loss from repeated urges to pull or twist the hair until it breaks off
  • symptoms usually begin before the age of 17
  • other characteristics include: uneven appearance to the hair, bare patches or al around loss of hair, being unable to stop, etc.
  • may affect up to 4% of the population; F are 4x more likely than M
  • typically lasts <1yr
  • SSRIs may reduce symptoms
102
Q

dermatillomania

A
  • typically begins with the onset of acne in adolescence, compulsion continues even after acne has gone away
  • linkage between dopamine and the urge to pick, stressful life events have been linked to the onset of the condition
103
Q

pyromania

A
  • purposely set fires on more than one occasion
  • before the act of lighting the fire, the person usually experiences tension and an emotional buildup
  • when around fires, the person gains intense interest or fascination and may experience pleasure, gratification, or relief
  • most cases occur in children/adolescents and 90% of cases are M
104
Q

trauma and stressor related disorders

A
  • marked by four general types of persistent symptoms after exposure to the traumatic event
    • intrusive re-experiencing of the traumatic event
    • avoidance
    • negative thoughts and mood and dissociation
    • increased arousal and reactivity
105
Q

reaction to traumatic stressors

A
  • traumatic events challenge the basic assumptions that most people have about the world
    • the belief in a fair and just world
    • the belief that it is possible to trust others and be safe
    • the belief that it is possible to be effective in the world
    • the sense that life has purpose and meaning
  • people react differently to stressors and traumatic events based on previous experiences, appraisal of the stressors, and coping style
106
Q

criticisms of diagnosis PTSD

A
  • distress and suffering experienced by people months after a traumatic event are not necessarily pathological
  • many symptoms of PTSD overlap with those of depression and anxiety
  • original criteria involved traumatic events far outside those normally experienced but now include more common traumatic events
  • altered for second hand victimization
  • has become a way to seek status as a victim for legal, financial, or psychological reasons
  • only diagnosis for which people can sue for compensation, thus may be over diagnosed
107
Q

categories of PTSD symptoms

A
  • re-experiencing a traumatic event
  • avoidance of stimuli associated with the event or numbing of responsiveness
  • symptoms of increased arousal
108
Q

PTSD vs acute stress disorder

A

if stressor causes significant impairment in social or occupation functioning less than one month acute stress disorder is diagnosed

109
Q

risk factors of PTSD

A
  • exposure to trauma and severity of trauma
  • gender (more F)
  • preceived threat to life
  • personality traits of neuroticism and extroversion
  • early conduct problems
  • family history of psychiatric disorders
  • stressful ocucpations
110
Q

psychological theories of PTSD

A
  • classical conditioning of fear
  • anxiety sensitivity
111
Q

biological theories of PTSD

A
  • genetics
  • specific domains of noradrenergic system
    • trauma may raise levels of norepinephrine
    • evidence for increased sensitivity of noradreergic receptors in patients with PTSD
  • associated with smaller hippocampus volume
  • associated with decreased anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal performance
112
Q

biological treatments for panic disorder

A
  • antidepressants
    • both selective SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants have been used successfully to treat PD
113
Q

psychological treatments for panic disorder

A
  • exposure based treatments are often useful in reducing PD with agoraphobia
  • CBT
114
Q

psychoanalytic approach for phobias

A

attempt to uncover the repressed conflicts believed to underlie the extreme fear and avoidance characteristic disorder

115
Q

behavioural approach for phobias

A
  • systematic desensitization
    • in vivo exposure
    • virtual reality exposure
  • flooding
116
Q

cognitive approach for phobias

A
  • viewed with skepticism because of a central defining characteristic of phobias: phobia fear is recognized by the individual as excessive or unreasonable
  • CBT
117
Q

Biological approach for phobias

A
  • anxiolytics (drugs that reduce anxiety- sedatives/tranquillizers)
    • barbiturates: first major category of drugs used to treat anxiety disorders
    • propanediols
    • benzodiazepines `
118
Q

therapies for GAD

A
  • similar to that of phobias
  • focus on restructuring cognitions
  • patients taught to monitor their thoughts and beliefs, assess their validity, and develop more balanced appraisals
119
Q

therapies for OCD

A
  • therapists attempt to normalize the occurrence of obsessional thinking by telling patients that approx 80% of population experience intrusive or unwanted obsessions
  • exposure response prevention
  • CBT
  • drugs that increase serotonin
120
Q

therapies for PTSD

A
  • combination of behavioural and cognitive methods (exposure, relaxation, breathing retraining to reduce arousal and anxiety)
  • psychoeducation
  • cognitive methods help patients understand the meaning of traumatic experiences and the misattributions they make about them
  • ensuring that the traumatized person is as safe as possible (group therapy can provide support and a sense of safety)
  • family and couples therapy can help educate family members in how they support their loved one
121
Q

depression

A
  • emotional state marked by great sadness, worthlessness, and guilt
  • often associated with other psychological problems (panic attacks, substance abuse, sexual dysfunction, personality disorders)
122
Q

prevalence and onset of major depressive disorder

A
  • 10-25% of F; 5-12% of M
  • different ethnicities, education levels, incomes, and marital statuses are affected equally
  • can begin at any age, onset is typically mid 20s
123
Q

comorbidity of MDD

A

most people with MDD have an additional psychological disorder

124
Q

course of MDD

A
  • more than half of those who have a single depressive episode have at least on additional episode (MDD, recurrent depression)
  • periods of remission shorten with age
125
Q

anhedonia

A
  • difficulty or inability to feel pleasure
  • activities and intellectual pursuits that were once enjoyable no longer are
  • can lead to social withdrawal
126
Q

cognitive symptoms of MDD

A
  • feelings of worthlessness, grief, or guilt
  • negative self evaluation with no objective reason
  • tendency to ruminate over past events and feelings
  • feelings of unwarranted responsibility for negative events (to the point of delusions)
  • self deprecation (blaming self for depression)
  • poor concentration, difficulty thinking, remembering, and making decisions
127
Q

self harm

A
  • in the US, 1 in 200 girls between 13 and 19 cut, comprising 70% of teen girls who self harm
  • number of cases is on the rise
  • without treatment, the behaviour will continue
128
Q

suicidal ideation

A

thoughts and intentions of killing onself

129
Q

suicide attempts

A

self injury behaviours intended to cause death but that do not lead to death

130
Q

suicide gestures

A

self injury in which there is no intent to die

131
Q

suicide

A

behaviours intended to cause death and death occurs

132
Q

suicide statisitics

A
  • ideators with a plan are more likely to make an attempt (31.9) than those without a plan (9.6); 43% of attempts are unplanned
  • history of prior attempts is the strongest correlate of 12 month attempts
133
Q

what to look for in someone who is suicidal

A
  • giving away possessions
  • saying goodbye to family and friends
  • talking about death
  • making/threatening/rehearsing plans for death
134
Q

neurobiology and suicide

A
  • MZ twins have a much higher concordance for suicidality than DZ twins
  • decreased levels of 5-HIAA
  • post mortem studies of brains of suicides and those with impulsivity revealed fewer serotonin receptors
135
Q

evolution of suicide

A
  • the death of one carrier of genes preserves the life of many more carriers
  • worker bee dies when stinging a predator, releasing alarm pheromones- protects the greater good of the hive
136
Q

psychomotor agitation

A

pacing, handwringing, difficulty sitting stillp

137
Q

psychomotor retardation

A

slowed bodily movements and speech, long pauses in speaking

138
Q

vegetative signs

A
  • psychomotor symptoms
  • changes in appetite or weight (increase/decrease)
  • sleep disturbance (hypersomnia/insomnia)
139
Q

hypersomnia

A

sleeping more than normal

140
Q

insomnia

A

difficulty sleeping or staying asleep

141
Q

seasonal affective disorder

A
  • a mood disorder in which people who have normal mental healthy throughout most of the year experience depressive symptoms in the winter, summer, spring, or autumn year after year
  • it is a specifier of major depression
142
Q

neural communication in depression

A

not caused by too much or too little of one NT and instead raised from complex interactions among numerous NT substances

143
Q

monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

A
  • decreases the breakdown of norepinephrine (NE)
  • MAO is an enzyme that breaks down monoamines (e.g. NE) left in the synapse
  • MAOIs inhibit MAO so it doesn’t breakdown the excess NT, leaving more to hit receptors and boost their effects
144
Q

tricyclic antidepressants

A
  • decreases the reuptake of norepinephrine (NE)
  • TCAs stop molecules from taking excess NE back into the firing neuron, leaving more in the synapse to keep hitting the receptors and boosting their effects
145
Q

selective serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs/SNRIs)

A

medications that slow the reuptake of serotonin from the synapse

146
Q

stress related hormones

A
  • excess cortisol in the blood makes the brain more prone to overreacting to stress (stress model)
147
Q

bipolar disorder

A
  • mood is often persistently and abnormally upbeat or shifts inappropriately from upbeat to markedly down
  • based of four building blocks:
    • major depressive episode
    • manic episode
    • mixed episode
    • hypomanic episode
148
Q

bipolar I

A
  • must have a manic or mixed episode
  • an MDE may also occur
149
Q

bipolar II

A
  • must alternate between hypomanic episode and major depressive episodes
  • less severe because of the absence of manic episodes
150
Q

manic episode

A

period of at least one week characterized by abnormal and persistent euphoria or expansive mood or irritability

151
Q

expansive mood

A

unceasing, indiscriminate enthusiasm for interpersonal, sexual, or occupation interactions

152
Q

what happens during a manic episode

A
  • begin projects with no skills or special training
  • believe they have special relationships with famous people or superior abilities
  • have less need for sleep
  • talk rapidly and loudly or have pressured speech
  • rarely sit still
  • flight of ideas
  • be highly distractible
  • have poor judgement resulting gin reckless gambling, spending, or sexual behaviours
  • sometimes involves rapid cycling or mixed episodes
153
Q

mitochondria

A
  • organelles that convert glucose to provide energy for the rest of the cell
  • located in the cytoplasm of cells
  • genes affect the number of these power plants
154
Q

psychoanalytic theory of depression

A
  • according to freud, depression is created early in childhood
  • during the oral period, child’s needs are insufficiently or over sufficiently gratified, causing fixation in this stage
155
Q

learned helplessness

A
  • an acquired tendency to give up easily or not to try at all when faces with new or difficult tasks
  • repeated failure
  • belief that others are in control
  • having others take care of ones needs
156
Q

merging psychology and biology

A
  • twin studies have shown that identical twins who’s co twin has MDD has a 4x higher risk of MDD than non identical twins
  • possibility that genes influence stress response- sensitivity to stress could contribute to depression
  • the environment plays a key role in whether genes contribute to depression and how genes have their effects
157
Q

evolution of depression

A
  • the symptoms of depression have been found in every culture
  • rank theory hypothesis
158
Q

rank theory hypothesis

A

in dangerous situations, pessimism and lack of motivation may give a fitness advantage by inhibiting certain actions, especially futile or dangerous challenges to dominant figures, efforts that would damage the body

159
Q

behavioural method to treat depressive disorders

A
  • focus on identifying and changing depressive behaviours
  • behavioural activation- self monitoring, scheduling daily activities that lead to pleasure, identifying and decreasing avoidant behaviours
  • superior cognitive techniques in treating both moderate and severe depression
160
Q

cognitive method to treat depressive disorders

A
  • aim to diminish or change depressing thoughts (often distortions of reality)
  • patients encouraged to collect data to assess the accuracy of their beliefs (can relieve and prevent depressive symptoms)
  • CBT is often as successful as medication
  • combination of CBT and medication is the most effective
161
Q

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A
  • may be used when a patient:
    • has severe symptoms
    • cannot take medications due to side effects or medical reasons
    • has psychotic depression unresponsive to medication
    • has sever depression that has not improved with medication or psychotherapy
  • administered 2-3x/week for 6-12 weeks
  • can cause memory loss
162
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation

A
  • sends high intensity magnetic pulses through the brain
  • easier to administer and causes fewer side effects than ECT

4th year 2nd sem (6 decks)

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