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PSY270 > PSY270 MIDTERM > Flashcards

PSY270 MIDTERM Flashcards

1
Q

what does mind information refer to?

A

the data the mind processes, stores + retrieves

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2
Q

what is sensory input?

A

initial contact our sensory systems have w/ our environment

raw data needed for perception to occur

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3
Q

what kind of process is attention?

A

a selective process

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4
Q

what is attention?

A

the process which allows us to focus on certain stimuli + filter out unimportant info

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5
Q

what is meant by attention as a selectional process?

A

we can choose to focus on certain stimuli + ignore others

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6
Q

is attention an absolute gatekeeper?

A

no, more like a filter

information that we don’t explicitly choose can still get through

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7
Q

what does the capacity of attention look like?

A

limited capacity

cannot attend to everything at the same time

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8
Q

what is detection?

A

the ability to perceive the presence of a stimulus

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9
Q

what is selection?

A

the ability to choose a specific stimulus to focus on among conflicting stimuli

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10
Q

what was the focus of Franciscus Donder’s work?

A

investigating detection vs. selection thru reaction time studies

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11
Q

what were Franciscus Donder’s findings?

A

that selection takes longer than detection

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12
Q

what did Colin Cherry’s work show?

A

that we selectively attend to information in our environment

proved how attention works

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13
Q

what model did Colin Cherry use in his work?

A

a dichotic listening paradigm

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14
Q

what is the Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus?

A

the first text to associate brain w/ behaviour, focusing on traumatic brain injuries + strokes

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15
Q

why was the Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus significant?

A

ahead of its time, focused on medical treatment for physical injury rather than spiritual

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16
Q

who was Abu Ali Sina (Avicenna)?

A

author of The Book of the Cure

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17
Q

what made Abu Ali Sina’s work significant?

A

advocated for an experimental approach

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18
Q

what did Abu Ali Sina (Avicenna) explore in his book?

A

links between the mind and body

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19
Q

who was Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)?

A

author of The Book of Optics

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20
Q

what was The Book of Optics about?

A

perceptual research, unconscious interference and the behaviour of the 2 eyes

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21
Q

what law talks about the behaviour of the 2 eyes?

A

Hering’s Law

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22
Q

what is unconscious interference?

A

the idea that the mind makes guesses about the visual word based on visual clues, w/out our conscious awareness

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23
Q

who is Gustav Fechner?

A

author of Elemente Der Psychophysik (1860)

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24
Q

what did Elemente Der Psychophysik touch on?

A

relating physical stimuli to the perception + sensation they produce

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25
Q

what is Fechner’s Law?

A

a law stating that the strength of how we feel a stimulus grows in proportion to the logarithm of the stimulus’s actual intensity

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26
Q

what is psychophysics?

A

the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and mental experience

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27
Q

what method did Wilhelm Wundt use?

A

introspection

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28
Q

what is introspection?

A

the method of training observers to ask themselves what they thought they perceived, and to record those observations

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29
Q

what were 2 problems with introspection?

A

variability and verification

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30
Q

what was the issue of variability in introspection?

A

individual responses differ, causing inconsistency in reports

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31
Q

what was the issue of verification in introspection?

A

there’s no ‘ground truth’ to verify 1 person’s report against another’s

cannot confirm accuracy

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32
Q

what is Edward Bradford Titchner known for?

A

founding the structuralist school of thought

mentoring the first female PhD student in psychology

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33
Q

what is structuralism?

A

school of thought focused on understanding the structure of the brain opposed to its function

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34
Q

what did structuralism rely on?

A

the use of introspection

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35
Q

who was Margaret Washburn?

A

the first female PhD student in psychology, in 1894

mentored by Edward Titchner

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36
Q

what was J.B. Watson known for?

A

his behaviourist perspective

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37
Q

what is behaviourism?

A

an early 20th century school of thought focused on studying only observable behaviours thru learning

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38
Q

what was behaviourism known for?

A

rejecting introspection + focusing on control and prediction of behaviour

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39
Q

what was the behaviourist view of child-rearing?

A

that parents should focus on using scientific method for child-rearing rather than traditional nurturing techniques

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40
Q

whose ideas did B.F. Skinner build off of?

A

J.B. Watson’s behaviourist ideas

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41
Q

what did Skinner expand Watson’s ideas into?

A

principles of operant conditioning

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42
Q

what are respondent behaviours?

A

behaviours that are in response to a specific stimulus

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43
Q

what are operant behaviours?

A

behaviours that are not influenced by specific stimuli, but instead by the consequences

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44
Q

what did Skinner believe about behaviour?

A

that behaviours followed by reward + reinforcement were likely to be repeated; behaviours followed by punishment were NOT

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45
Q

who is Ulrich Neisser?

A

author of Cognitive Psychology

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46
Q

what did Ulrich Neisser do?

A

defined work for the modern era + ideas of psychology

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47
Q

what did Neisser emphasize as the central concept of understanding the mind?

A

information processing

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48
Q

what did Claude Shannon make?

A

information theory

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49
Q

what is information theory?

A

a theory viewing the mind as an active system that receives, processes, stores and retrieves information

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50
Q

what is the black box of cognition?

A

a metaphor used in behaviourism to describe the processes behind cognition that cannot be directly observed

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51
Q

what was the cognitive revolution?

A

a period during the 50s + 60s characterized by rapid + radical change in the field of cognitive psychology

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52
Q

what was a main characteristic of the cognitive revolution?

A

marked the departure from behaviourism

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53
Q

what did Dom Thomas Verner Moore do?

A

wrote a cognitive psychology text in 1939 contemplating cognition prior to any modern framework (like information theory)

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54
Q

why was Dom Thomas Verner Moore’s text significant?

A

it showed that not every psychologist was a behaviourist before the cognitive revolution

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55
Q

what did Edward Tolman do?

A

challenged the behaviourist view w/ his experiments on rats in mazes

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56
Q

what did Edward Tolman discover from his work on rats in mazes?

A

that humans + animals learn by acquiring info + forming mental representations of their environment

demonstrated rats could learn the layout of a maze w/out reinforcement

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57
Q

how did Edward Tolman view the black box of cognition?

A

argued against it; believed that internal cognitive processes are central to understanding how learning occurs

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58
Q

what is the mind-as-computer analogy?

A

an analogy for the brain emerging out of WWII + modern computing systems, drawing heavily on information theory

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59
Q

what were the 3 components of the mind-as-computer analogy?

A

inputs, outputs, and program

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60
Q

what is ‘input’ in the mind-as-computer analogy?

A

information received through perception (auditory + visual input)

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61
Q

what are ‘outputs’ in the mind-as-computer analogy?

A

observable behaviours (actions + decisions)

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62
Q

what is the ‘program’ in the mind-as-computer analogy?

A

the internal cognitive processes behind behaviour (attention + memory)

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63
Q

what are process models?

A

a model for cognitive processes that focuses on the sequence of mental operations

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64
Q

what do process models try to explain?

A

how information is transformed + moved through the different stages of processing

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65
Q

what are process models valuable for?

A

for complex cognitive tasks

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66
Q

what is an example of a process model?

A

Broadbent’s model of selective attention

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67
Q

what is Broadbent’s model of selective attention?

A

a model proposing steps to how attention selects relevant information from the environment

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68
Q

what kind of selection model is Broadbent’s model of selective attention + why?

A

an early selection model b/c it suggests that attention acts as a filter in the early processing stream

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69
Q

what are the 3 steps to Broadbent’s model of selective attention?

A

the sensory store, the selective filter, and the limited capacity channel

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70
Q

what are structural models?

A

models for cognitive processes that focuses on the physical organization of the brain + connections between diff brain areas

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71
Q

what is cognitive psychology?

A

the field focusing on the inner workings of the mind thru observation + analysis of behaviour

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72
Q

what levels of analysis does cognitive psychology rely on?

A

computational and algorithmic

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73
Q

what is cognitive neuroscience?

A

the field focusing on the biological structures + processes underlying cognitive functions

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74
Q

what level of analysis does cognitive neuroscience rely on?

A

the implementational level

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75
Q

what does cognitive neuroscience examine models for?

A

biological plausibility

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76
Q

what is biological plausibility?

A

the question of whether a structure can actually perform a specific task

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77
Q

what is electrophysiology?

A

a technique used in neuroscience to record the electrical activity of neurons

direct measurement of neural activity

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78
Q

what are the benefits + limitations of electrophysiology?

A

very good temporal resolution, limited spatial resolution

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79
Q

what is neuronal selectivity?

A

the tendency of individual neuron’s to respond to certain stimuli while remaining (partially) unresponsive to others

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80
Q

what did Charlie Gross find?

A

evidence for neuronal selectivity; recorded neurons in the visual cortex of macaques, found that certain neurons responded only to shapes representing the monkey’s own fingers

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81
Q

what do the findings of Charlie Gross suggest?

A

that neuronal selectivity exists; some neurons are tuned to respond to certain features + patterns of stimuli

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82
Q

what is fMRI?

A

a neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow + oxygenation

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83
Q

what is fMRI good for?

A

spatial resolution (down to the mm precision) and localization of function

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84
Q

what is localization of function?

A

the idea that different parts of the brain specialize in different cognitive functions

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85
Q

is fMRI a direct or indirect measure of neural activity?

A

indirect measure b/c it reflects metabolic demands rather than electrical activity

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86
Q

what is EEG?

A

a neuroimaging technique that measures fluctuations of voltages in the brain

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87
Q

what is EEG good for?

A

temporal resolution – can tell us when something is happening down to the millisecond

portable

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88
Q

what is a limitation of EEGs?

A

they have poor spatial resolution

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89
Q

what were Hubel + Wiesel known for?

A

using electrophysiology to measure neuron activity in the visual cortex of cats + monkeys

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90
Q

what did Hubel and Wiesel find?

A

discovered feature detectors and discovered that visual info is processed in a hierarchical manner

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91
Q

what are feature detectors?

A

specialized neurons that respond selectively to features of visual stimuli (e.g., movement + orientation)

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92
Q

what does the hierarchical manner of visual processing mean?

A

that neurons in early visual areas respond to simple features; neurons in later visual areas respond to more complex features

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93
Q

what is population coding?

A

the idea that a specific stimulus is represented by a large group of combined neurons

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94
Q

what are the benefits of population coding?

A

it allows for complex + detailed representations

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95
Q

what is population coding best for?

A

brain systems that require continuous representation (e.g., the motor cortex)

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96
Q

what is the limitation(s) of population coding?

A

it is metabolically expensive – requires more energy + oxygen

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97
Q

what is sparse coding?

A

the idea that a small, selective group of neurons represent a stimulus

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98
Q

what is the benefit of sparse coding?

A

it is more metabolically efficient

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99
Q

what tasks is sparse coding ideal for?

A

tasks requiring efficiency + selectivity (e.g., attention + memory)

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100
Q

what does sparse coding intend to do?

A

use the optimal number of neurons to sufficiently represent a stimulus w/out using too many resources

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101
Q

in cognitive psychology, what is the main focus?

A

behaviour

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102
Q

in cognitive neuroscience, what is the main focus?

A

biological plausibility

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103
Q

if you’re looking to identify specific brain regions associated w/ a task, which neuroimaging technique is best?

A

fMRI

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104
Q

if you’re looking to study rapid changes in brain activity, which neuroimaging method would be best?

A

EEG

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105
Q

what are the limitations of fMRI?

A

bad temporal resolution, expensive, not portable

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106
Q

what is scene gist?

A

the idea that if you see a scene for a fraction of a second, you can have a good understanding of what is going on

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107
Q

is scene gist 100% accurate?

A

no, you may miss some finer details of the scene

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108
Q

who were Greene and Olivia?

A

researchers who used scene gist to study visual perception

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109
Q

how fast can we understand scenes?

A

in less than the blink of an eye; blinks last 150-200 ms, we can understand a static scene if shown for less than that

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110
Q

what is the binocular visual field?

A

the visual field that both eyes can see together

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111
Q

how large is the binocular visual field?

A

180-190º horizontal + 130-140º vertical

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112
Q

what does visual angle depend on?

A

the object’s size + the distance from the observer

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113
Q

what are photoreceptors?

A

the cells on the retina that are sensitive to light

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114
Q

what are the 2 types of photoreceptors?

A

cones and rods

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115
Q

what are cones for?

A

responsible for colour vision + visual sharpness

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116
Q

how many types of cones are there?

A

3 - each sensitive to a different wavelength of light: red, green, or blue

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117
Q

where are the cones most densely packed?

A

in the fovea

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118
Q

where does cone density decrease?

A

in the periphery

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119
Q

where do cones not exist?

A

only on the blind spot

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120
Q

what are rods for?

A

seeing in low-light conditions as they are highly sensitive to light

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121
Q

what is one property of rods that is different from cones?

A

they do not distinguish among colours

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122
Q

where is the peak distribution of rods?

A

in the periphery, 15-20º from the fovea

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123
Q

where are rods not present?

A

in the fovea

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124
Q

what is the optic disc?

A

the blind spot

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125
Q

what is eccentricity?

A

the angular distance something is from the fovea

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126
Q

which area has 0 eccentricity?

A

the fovea

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127
Q

what is the fovea?

A

the central point of the retina where vision is the sharpest

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128
Q

what is peripheral vision?

A

the ability to see objects outside of our direct line of sight

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129
Q

what are some characteristics of peripheral vision?

A

contains photoreceptors at a lower density
more sensitive to movement + dim light b/c of peak distribution of rods

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130
Q

what does peripheral vision do?

A

direct eyes to areas of interest by allowing the brain to quickly assess the environment

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131
Q

is peripheral vision inherently blurry?

A

no

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132
Q

what does colourblindness refer to?

A

issues w/ cone photoreceptors in the retina causing a deficit in colour vision

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133
Q

how does colourblindness typically occur?

A

from 1 or more cone types being missing or damaged

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134
Q

what is protanopia?

A

a type of colourblindness characterized by missing L cones (sensitive to red)

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135
Q

what is deuteranopia?

A

a type of colourblindness characterized by missing M cones (sensitive to green)

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136
Q

what is tritanopia?

A

a type of colourblindness characterized by missing S cones (sensitive to blue)

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137
Q

what is achromatopsia?

A

a rare type of colourblindness characterized by NO colour vision

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138
Q

what usually causes achromatopsia?

A

brain damage rather than damage to photoreceptors

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139
Q

what is peripheral vision not completely sufficient at?

A

object identification and localization

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140
Q

what is the problem of object recognition?

A

objects appear in various spaces, sizes and orientation; makes it difficult to create constant representations

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141
Q

what is image segmentation?

A

the process of separating a visual scene into distinct objects + their backgrounds

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142
Q

what are the 2 strategies the brain uses to handle the problem of object recognition?

A

individual representations and invariant representations

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143
Q

what are individual representations?

A

representations that encode specific features and characteristics

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144
Q

what are invariant representations?

A

representations that allow us to identify an object despite its orientation

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145
Q

what is occlusion?

A

where one object partially blocks another

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146
Q

can our brains still identify occluded objects?

A

yes

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147
Q

what is shape variability?

A

the idea that recognizing objects can be difficult b/c the same objects can vary in shape

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148
Q

what is perceptual consistency?

A

the idea that we can still recognize the same object despite it appearing in different states (lighting, viewpoint, etc..)

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149
Q

what are illusory objects?

A

a phenomenon where we perceive objects as being present that are not really there

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150
Q

what does unconscious interference have to do w/ our perception of illusory objects?

A

it can lead us to “fill in the gaps” and perceive an object that is not present

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151
Q

what is template theory?

A

a model suggesting that the visual system compares an object in the world to a stored representation of that object in memory

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152
Q

what are the issues w/ template theory?

A

due to object diversity, the brain would need a large # of templates (metabolically expensive)

struggles to explain how we can represent objects from different viewpoints

would require separate templates for every possible occlusion of an object

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153
Q

what is feature analysis?

A

a model that suggests the brain breaks down visual input into its basic features (lines, colours, edges) and uses them to construct object representations

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154
Q

what are the benefits of feature analysis?

A

it allows for the recognition of objects despite changes in viewpoint, shape and occlusion

less metabolically expensive

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155
Q

what are simple cells?

A

a type of neuron that respond best to oriented lines at a specific location on the retina

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156
Q

what are complex cells?

A

a type of neuron that respond best to oriented lines regardless of orientation

but have preferred motion directions

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157
Q

what are hypercomplex cells?

A

a type of neuron that respond to combinations for specific features

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158
Q

what do simple, complex and hypercomplex cells mean for the information the brain can encode?

A

the brain can easily encode a large amount of information b/c it’s broken down into basic components

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159
Q

what is adaptation?

A

a reduction in response rate to a stimulus after being presented w/ it a large number of times

a form of habituation w/in the visual system

160
Q

what does adaptation do to a neuron?

A

cause it to become less sensitive to the presence of a certain feature

161
Q

what are aftereffects?

A

visual phenomena that occur after prolonged exposure to a stimulus

162
Q

why do aftereffects occur?

A

b/c the visual system adapts to the constant presence of a stimulus + leads to a change in perception when it is removed

163
Q

what are low-level visual areas?

A

areas that contain simple cells and are low-level b/c they detect basic + localized features

164
Q

what are mid-level visual areas?

A

areas that contain complex cells + are mid-level b/c they integrate information across a large spatial area + are sensitive to motion

165
Q

what are high-level visual areas?

A

areas that contain hypercomplex cells + are high-level b/c they represent entire objects instead of features

166
Q

what is visual agnosia?

A

a neurological disorder causing the inability to recognize familiar objects despite intact vision

167
Q

how does visual agnosia occur?

A

due to damage in the ventral stream (the “what” pathway)

168
Q

what is prosopagnosia?

A

a neurological condition causing the inability to recognize one’s own + other’s faces

169
Q

what is the two visual streams hypothesis (TVSH)?

A

a hypothesis by Goodale + Miller that suggests the brain processes visual info across 2 distinct pathways

170
Q

what is the ventral stream?

A

the “what” pathway; crucial for identifying + recognizing objects

171
Q

what is the dorsal stream?

A

the “where” pathway; crucial for recognizing the spatial location of objects relative to the viewer + guiding actions

172
Q

who was Patient D.F.?

A

a patient w/ damage to her temporal lobe that resulted in disassociation between perception and action

173
Q

what could Patient D.F. not do?

A

could not identify objects or their orientation

174
Q

what could Patient D.F. do?

A

could use visual info to guide her actions

175
Q

why is Patient D.F. significant?

A

provided crucial evidence for TVSH

176
Q

what is the fusiform face area (FFA)?

A

a part of the brain known for playing a key role in recognizing faces

177
Q

what did Nancy Kanwisher show?

A

in her research, that the FFA exhibits a selective response to faces

178
Q

what did Isabel Gauthier show?

A

that FFA is not exclusive only to faces

179
Q

what are greebles?

A

novel + artificial objects created by Isabel Gauthier

180
Q

what is the significance of greebles and the FFA?

A

Isabel Gauthier showed that individuals who became experts in “greebles” had increased FFA activity when viewing greebles

181
Q

what is Balint’s Syndrome?

A

a rare brain disorder that affects how an individual sees + interacts w/ the world

182
Q

what are the symptoms of Balint’s Syndrome?

A

trouble seeing more than 1 object at a time

difficulty reaching for objects

trouble moving their eyes to look at something new

183
Q

what are perceptual assumptions?

A

the inferences that our brain makes based on our prior experiences and expectations to guide perception

184
Q

what are perceptual biases?

A

the errors in perception that arise due to perceptual assumptions being misapplied

185
Q

what kind of perceptions do we have?

A

non-veridical (not 100% accurate)

186
Q

what is the likelihood principle?

A

the idea that we perceive the world based on the most likely interpretation based on our previous knowledge + experiences, not how it truly is

187
Q

what are Gestalt principles?

A

how our brain tends to organize visual elements into groups + patterns

188
Q

who is credited w/ creating the likelihood principle?

A

Hermann von Helmholtz in the 19th century

189
Q

what is the proximity gestalt principle?

A

elements close together in space are perceived as belonging together

190
Q

what is the similarity gestalt principle?

A

elements that share visual characteristics are perceived as a group

191
Q

what is the closure gestalt principle?

A

that our brain tends to perceive a complete figure even if it’s incomplete

192
Q

what is the good continuation gestalt principle?

A

our brain tends to perceive lines + contours as flowing smoothly even if they overlap

193
Q

what is the common fate gestalt principle?

A

our brain tends to perceive objects moving together in the same direction as a group

194
Q

what is the pragnanz gestalt principle?

A

our brain tends to perceive objects in their simplest + most symmetrical forms so they are easier to understand

195
Q

what is light-from-above?

A

the idea that our visual systems assume light sources are above us

196
Q

what is the oblique effect?

A

the idea that our brains are better at discriminating orientations that are closer to horizontal + vertical

197
Q

what is face inversion?

A

the idea that our brains are better at processing faces when they are upright rather than inverted

198
Q

what is the Thatcher illusion?

A

the idea that inverting the features sin a face + inverting the face only looks weird if it’s upright

199
Q

what are semantic violations?

A

when objects appear out of context but in physically possible locations

200
Q

what are syntactic violations?

A

when objects appear in the correct context but in physically impossible locations

201
Q

who is Melissa Vo?

A

a researcher exploring how we quickly + unconsciously process scenes

202
Q

what is scene grammar?

A

the implicit rules + principles that govern object placement and relationships w/ different environments

203
Q

what is visual search?

A

a classic tool for studying attention + cognition that involves looking for a target among distractors

204
Q

when is search easy?

A

when targets are defined by a single visual feature

205
Q

when is search difficult?

A

when targets are defined by a combination of features

206
Q

what is pop-out search?

A

when a target is defined by a single feature, so it’s easy to ignore everything else

207
Q

does the number of distractors matter in pop-out search?

A

no

208
Q

what is set size?

A

the total number of distractors in a search

209
Q

how is reaction time affected in pop-out search?

A

reaction time does not change

210
Q

is pop-out search parallel or serial?

A

parallel

211
Q

what does parallel search mean?

A

that you do not have to go through every item on its own

212
Q

what is conjunction search?

A

when a target has more than 1 feature, so you have to go from item to item

213
Q

is conjunction search parallel or serial?

A

serial

214
Q

what is serial search?

A

when you must go through each item 1 by 1

215
Q

how is reaction time affected in conjunction search?

A

reaction time scales w/ set size

216
Q

what is present vs. absent search?

A

when you must determine whether or not an object is present

217
Q

how does absent vs. present search differ in feature + conjunction search?

A

in feature search, it doesn’t matter whether or not the target is present or absent

in conjunction search, you need to go thru half the items (on average) to determine whether the target is absent or presrnt

218
Q

what separates real world search from visual search?

A

often it is much more difficult due to occlusion + complex environments

219
Q

what is satisficing?

A

the idea of our brains prioritizing efficiency over completeness + accuracy

220
Q

how did William James define attention in the Principles of Psychology?

A

as taking possession of the mind in clear + vivid form, of one of several simultaneously possible objects/trains of thought

221
Q

what is the problem of attention?

A

the challenge of maintaining limited cognitive resources w/ an influx of sensory information

222
Q

what is the limited capacity problem of attention?

A

the world is very detailed but there’s a limit to how much we can represent

223
Q

what is the selectivity problem of attention?

A

the challenge of choosing which information to prioritize in the vast amounts of information we receive

224
Q

what is the vigilance problem of attention?

A

the difficulty of maintaining focus over large periods of time (especially on monotonous tasks)

225
Q

what is the interference problem of attention?

A

the challenge of the environment being full of potential distractors that compete for our attention

226
Q

what is the multitasking problem of attention?

A

the challenge of being slower + less accurate when trying to do 2+ tasks at once

227
Q

what are the consequences of the problems of attention?

A

inattentional blindness and change blindness

228
Q

what is inattentional blindness?

A

when our attention is focused on one task + we fail to notice stimuli that is unexpected/irrelevant even if it is obvious

229
Q

what is change blindness?

A

when our attention is focused on one task + we fail to notice change in a scene even if it is relatively large + obvious

230
Q

what is the safety in numbers problem?

A

that we are less likely to notice + respond to events that happen rarely or infrequently

231
Q

what is Broadbent’s early selection model?

A

a model that sees attention as an absolute gatekeeper

232
Q

how does Broadbent’s early selection model work?

A

the brain selects sensory input before detecting it

if you choose to attend to something, it goes on for further processing, if you don’t, it’s gone

233
Q

what is the cocktail party effect?

A

the effect where you can be in a crowded room + still hear your name in conversation

234
Q

what is Moray’s 1959 experiment?

A

a dichotic listening paradigm that showed if participants heard their name in a prompt while attending to something else, they were more likely to respond

235
Q

what do the cocktail party effect and Moray’s 1959 experiment show?

A

that attention is not an absolute filter + some info that you have no awareness of can get through

provide evidence against early selection

236
Q

what is the flaw of the early selection model?

A

it argues for too much information being discarded

237
Q

what is the late selection model?

A

a model that argues attention works after all stimuli (including task-irrelevant) has been recognized

238
Q

what is the flaw with late selection models?

A

they are too metabolically expensive and argue for too much information getting through

239
Q

what did Anne Treisman create?

A

both the attenuation model of attention + feature integration theory (FIT)

240
Q

what is the attenuation model of attention?

A

a model that argues attention is not a gatekeeper, but more of a filter

241
Q

how does the attenuation model of attention work?

A

irrelevant information is not completely blocked but instead reduced before detection + recognition occurs

242
Q

what does the attenuation model of attention show?

A

that attending to 1 thing doesn’t block everything else

that we have some awareness of things we’re not attending to

243
Q

what is feature integration theory (FIT)?

A

a theory that argues attention is what binds features into objects

244
Q

how does feature integration theory work in pop-out search tasks?

A

doesn’t require binding (b/c there’s only 1 feature to search for)

245
Q

how does feature integration theory work in conjunction search tasks?

A

does require binding b/c you must determine that 2 characteristics belong to 1 object

246
Q

what is guided search?

A

a model that suggests the brain uses “feature maps” to guide where attention is directed during visual search tasks

247
Q

what is attentional cueing?

A

a paradigm used to investigate how attention is shifted + the effects of shifted attention on our ability to process info

248
Q

who created the attentional cueing paradigm + when?

A

Posner in 1980

249
Q

what were the effects when a cue correctly predicted target location?

A

participants responded faster

250
Q

what were the effects when a cue incorrectly predicted target location?

A

participants responded slower

251
Q

what did attentional cueing show?

A

that shifting attention away from the cued location to a target costs more time, therefore slower reaction time

252
Q

what is attentional capture?

A

when a salient stimulus grabs your attention despite being irrelevant to the task you’re doing

253
Q

what is overt attention?

A

attending where we are looking

254
Q

how can bottom-up factors drive overt attention?

A

b/c salient stimuli can draw our attention involuntarily

255
Q

how do top-down factors drive overt attention?

A

b/c our knowledge + previous experiences can guide where we look for information

256
Q

how can overt attention be studied?

A

through eye tracking

257
Q

what is covert attention?

A

attending somewhere other than where you’re looking

258
Q

what can we attend to?

A

objects (object-based attention) or locations (spatial attention)

259
Q

can you attend to something that isn’t there?

A

yes

260
Q

how difficult is multiple object tracking?

A

most people can easily do <2, but >4 is difficult

261
Q

what does contralateral organization of the visual system mean?

A

that visual info processed in the right or left hemifield is processed in the opposite side of the brain

262
Q

where is visual information not processed?

A

in the eyes

263
Q

what is the LGN repsonsible for?

A

acting as a relay station that receives input from optic nerves

264
Q

what is visual area V4 responsible for?

A

processing colour + form

265
Q

what is the inferotemporal cortex responsible for?

A

processing shape + object recognition

266
Q

what is the parietal cortex responsible for?

A

processing spatial information + using it to guide actions

267
Q

what is the concept of retinotopic mapping?

A

that locations close together in the visual world are represented by neurons close together in the brain

268
Q

what are the neuronal impacts of attention?

A

attention enhances neural activity in brain areas responsible for processing the attended information

269
Q

what is the rapid serial visual representation paradigm (RSVP)?

A

a paradigm that focuses on how fast we can process information

270
Q

what are the 3 tasks of RSVP?

A

memory task, detection (pre-cue) task, and category search task

271
Q

what is the memory task in RSVP?

A

participants are asked to remember all images presented + tested on their ability to recall one of the pictures

272
Q

what is the detection (pre-cue) task in RSVP?

A

participants are shown an image in advance + asked to point out when they see that image in the stream

273
Q

what is the category search task in RSVP?

A

participants are given a category in advance + asked to report when they see a member of that category

274
Q

what were the results of RSVP?

A

participants could successfully complete all 3 tasks w/ a presentation rate of 1fps but performance on category search declined at 4-8 fps

275
Q

what did the results of RSVP show?

A

that detection tasks are less demanding than recognition + categorization tasks

276
Q

what is the attentional blink paradigm?

A

a method to study the temporal limitations of attention

277
Q

what did the results of the attentional blink paradigm show?

A

that the ability to detect a 2nd target is impaired if presented shortly after a 1st target

278
Q

what is switch cost?

A

the idea that you are slower + less accurate when switching between tasks rather than doing 1 task

279
Q

what are the 2 forms of distracted driving?

A

cognitive distraction and visual distraction

280
Q

what is cognitive distraction in driving?

A

when attention is directed on a task other than driving but one is still looking at the road

281
Q

what is visual distraction in driving?

A

when one is physically looking away from the road to focus on another task

282
Q

what is attentional tunnelling?

A

a phenomenon where a person’s attention is so focused on a task that they fail to notice important events/information in the environment

283
Q

what did Atkinson and Shriffin create?

A

the modal model of memory

284
Q

what is the modal model of memory?

A

a theoretical framework to describe memory with 3 stages

285
Q

what are the 3 stages of the modal memory model?

A

sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

286
Q

what is sensory memory?

A

the initial stage of the modal model where sensory info is briefly held

287
Q

what does sensory memory do?

A

hold onto sensory information briefly so that attention can select relevant information to hold on to

288
Q

what are the characteristics of sensory memory?

A

it has a large capacity + decays rapidly

289
Q

what are the 2 subtypes of sensory memory?

A

iconic memory and echoic memory

290
Q

what is iconic memory?

A

a subtype of sensory memory which acts as the temporary store for visual information

291
Q

what is echoic memory?

A

a subtype of sensory memory which acts as the temporary store for auditory information

292
Q

what is another term for short-term memory?

A

working memory

293
Q

what does short-term (working) memory do?

A

holds a limited amount of information that is actively being worked

294
Q

what is the capacity of short-term (working) memory?

A

3-4 items

295
Q

what is rehearsal?

A

a method of repeating information in short-term memory to help transfer it to long-term memory

296
Q

what does long-term memory do?

A

holds large amounts of information for extended periods of time

297
Q

what are the characteristics of long-term memory?

A

vast capacity, durable, inactive

298
Q

what is meant by long-term memory being “inactive”?

A

we do not have conscious awareness of everything in long-term memory

299
Q

what is meant by long-term memory being “durable”?

A

more robust against decay

300
Q

what is retrieval?

A

the process of moving information from long-term memory to short-term memory so that we can express it

301
Q

what did Sperling (1960) do?

A

demonstrated the large capacity + rapid decay of iconic memory using a partial report paradigm

302
Q

what did the results of Sperling (1960) show?

A

that participants could report more information immediately after presentation

303
Q

what do the results of Sperling (1960) suggest?

A

that a large amount of information is initially available in iconic memory but decays rapidly

304
Q

what were the effects of a visual mask in Sperling (1960)?

A

the visual mask worsened performance

305
Q

what did the results of the visual mask show in Sperling (1960)?

A

that new sensory input can disrupt or overwrite information in iconic memory

306
Q

what did Glanzer & Kunitz (1966) do?

A

used a free recall task to determine how presentation speed and “junk” impact memory

307
Q

what is the primacy effect?

A

the effect where better recall is demonstrated for items at the beginning of a list

308
Q

what causes the primacy effect?

A

privileged rehearsal – items at the beginning of a list have more time to be rehearsed

309
Q

what is the recency effect?

A

the effect where better recall is demonstrated for items at the end of a list

310
Q

what causes the recency effect?

A

the fact that items are still active in short-term memory at the time of recall

311
Q

how did presentation speeds affect the primacy + recency effect in Glanzer & Kunitz (1966)?

A

slower presentation speed enhanced the primacy effect, did not change the recency effect

312
Q

why did presentation speed affect the primacy + recency effect in this way?

A

b/c slowing the rate of presentation allowed more time for rehearsal, but STM storage was unaffected

313
Q

what did Glanzer & Kunitz (1966) and Sperling (1960) provide evidence for?

A

the modal model of memory

314
Q

what is anterograde amnesia?

A

the inability to encode new information after an accident (brain injury)

315
Q

who was patient H.M.?

A

Henry Molaison, an anterograde amnesiac

316
Q

what were patient H.M.’s ailments?

A

was unable to encode most new information, and was difficult to access LTM

317
Q

what could patient H.M. do?

A

he could recall pre-surgery information + had functional STM

able to learn new motor skills + be classically conditioned + primed associations

318
Q

what did H.M.’s postmortem exam reveal?

A

he had a partial hippocampal lesion

319
Q

how did H.M.’s partial hippocampal lesion explain his condition?

A

hippocampus moves information from STM to LTM, explaining why he couldn’t encode new information

320
Q

who was Clive Wearing?

A

an anterograde amnesiac

321
Q

what were Clive Wearing’s ailments?

A

impaired declarative memory (could not name/label things), could not access LTM

322
Q

what was Clive Wearing able to do?

A

could develop new procedural memories (skills, tasks) through repetition, could perform tasks

323
Q

who was patient K.F.?

A

an anterograde amnesiac

324
Q

what were patient K.F’s ailments?

A

had limited working memory capacity w/ a digit span of only 1 item

325
Q

what could patient K.F. do?

A

could transfer some information from WM to LTM, could retrieve info from LTM

326
Q

how do the cases of patient H.M. and K.F. differ?

A

b/c H.M. had short-term memory but could not transfer to long-term memory

K.F. had impaired short-term memory but could transfer to long-term memory

327
Q

how do the cases of patient H.M. and K.F. break the modal model of memory?

A

b/c it provides the question: how is information getting to long-term memory if short-term memory isn’t there?

328
Q

what is Baddeley’s working memory model?

A

a model that sees STM as a multi-component system that actively works info, rather than a passive storage unit

329
Q

what is the central executive in Baddeley’s WM model?

A

the control centre that coordinates activity of the phonological loop + visuospatial buffer

330
Q

what is the phonological loop in Baddeley’s WM model?

A

the subsystem which stores auditory + verbal information for immediate processing

331
Q

what is the visuospatial buffer in Baddeley’s WM model?

A

the subsystem which stores visual + spatial info for immediate processing

332
Q

what are the 3 pieces of evidence for the phonological loop?

A

phonological similarity, articulatory suppression, and word length effect

333
Q

what is phonological similarity?

A

evidence for the phonological loop that shows our tendency to confuse letters/words that sound similar

334
Q

what does phonological similarity show?

A

that information is stored in a phonological code (representation based on sound)

335
Q

what is articulatory suppression?

A

evidence for the phonological loop that shows repeating irrelevant sounds while memorizing words impairs performance

336
Q

what does articulatory suppression show?

A

that verbal rehearsal is important for retaining information in the phonological loop

337
Q

what is the word length effect?

A

evidence for the phonological loop that shows we can remember more short words than long ones

338
Q

what does the word length effect show?

A

that the phonological loop has a limited capacity

339
Q

what are the capacity limits of the visuospatial buffer?

A

3-4 items, regardless of complexity

340
Q

what is the proof of correlation between vSTM and higher cognitive functions?

A

there is a strong correlation between visuospatial buffer capacity and fluid intelligence

341
Q

what did Alvarez & Cavanagh (2004) do?

A

investigated the capacity limits of vSTM in relation to object complexity

342
Q

what did Alvarez & Cavanagh (2004) find?

A

that vSTM stores the same amount of complex objects as simple ones, but memory representations for complex objects are less precise?

343
Q

what is contralateral delay activity (CDA)?

A

a difference in brain activity between the 2 hemispheres when we are holding information in vSTM

344
Q

what does CDA tell us?

A

it provides evidence for the capacity limits of vSTM

345
Q

what does CDA show?

A

it increases as you hold more items, but hits a hard limit that you cannot bypass

346
Q

does complexity of an object affect CDA?

A

no

347
Q

what is BOLD activity?

A

blood oxygen level dependent activity

348
Q

what does BOLD activity do when you hold information in vSTM?

A

it increases

349
Q

how much does BOLD activity increase when holding info in vSTM?

A

it increases in proportion to the # of items that are held in vSTM

350
Q

what does BOLD activity tell us?

A

that there is a hard limit of vSTM capacity – past 3-4 items, BOLD activity plateaus

351
Q

what is dual-task interference?

A

the effect where performing 2 tasks at once leads to a decline in performance in 1 (or both) tasks

352
Q

why does dual-task interference occur?

A

b/c both tasks are competing for the same limited pool of cognitive resources

353
Q

what does it tell us if dual-task interference does not occur?

A

that the 2 tasks pull from different cognitive resource pools + therefore don’t compete

354
Q

do the phonological loop + visuospatial buffer rely on the same cognitive resources?

A

no

355
Q

what is the difference of audio verbal vs. visual distractions in driving?

A

both have a level of distraction, but visual is more b/c it draws on the same resource pool as looking at the road

356
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal?

A

the process of repeatedly thinking about + saying information to retain it in STM

357
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal useful for?

A

temporarily maintaining info in STM

358
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal not useful for?

A

transferring information from STM to LTM

359
Q

what did Craik & Watkins (1971) predict?

A

that if studying longer + harder helps LTM encoding, then longer periods of rehearsal will lead to more accurate recall

360
Q

what did the results of Craig & Watkins (1971) show?

A

that there is no relationship between longer rehearsal periods + better LTM recall

361
Q

why does maintenance rehearsal not work well for LTM encoding?

A

b/c it does not facilitate meaningful connections that allow for LTM encoding

362
Q

does it matter how long + hard you rehearse something?

A

not for LTM encoding

363
Q

what is elaborative rehearsal?

A

a type of rehearsal that involves engaging w/ the information + making connections to facilitate its transfer to LTM

364
Q

what are the 3 stages of processing?

A

shallow, medium and deep processing

365
Q

what is shallow processing?

A

engaging superficially w/ material without considering its deeper meaning or making connections

366
Q

how does shallow processing affect LTM recall?

A

leads to poor LTM recall

367
Q

what is medium processing?

A

engaging w/ the information’s basic features and how they relate to one another

368
Q

how does medium processing affect LTM recall?

A

leads to better LTM recall than shallow processing, but still not as effective as deeper processing

369
Q

what is deep processing?

A

engaging w/ meaning + making deeper connections of information to existing knowledge

370
Q

how does deep processing affect LTM recall?

A

leads to best LTM recall b/c it creates a network of associations which makes retrieval easier

371
Q

what is incidental learning?

A

learning w/out intention

372
Q

what is intentional learning?

A

learning w/ intention

373
Q

in what stage of processing do intentional vs. incidental learning occur?

A

in any stage of processing

374
Q

is incidental or intentional learning better than the other?

A

not particularly – the depth of processing matters more

375
Q

what is the generation effect?

A

the effect where information is better learned + recalled when it is actively created by the learner

376
Q

what causes the generation effect?

A

the fact that it is a type of deep processing, which facilitates better recall

377
Q

what is summarization?

A

a technique that involves rewriting concepts in your own words

378
Q

what kind of processing is summarization?

A

deep processing

379
Q

how does summarization affect performance?

A

it leads to the best performance on recall tasks regardless of time elapsed

380
Q

what are mnemonics?

A

techniques that help learning by providing ways to organize concepts

381
Q

what are first-letter mnemonics?

A

a type of mnemonics that use the first letter of words to make acronyms that facilitate recall

382
Q

what are peg-word mnemonics?

A

a type of mnemonics that provides a system that associates pre-existing knowledge with information you want to remember

383
Q

what is the journey technique?

A

a type of mnemonics that focuses on imagining a journey + places information thru/out the trip

384
Q

what is the mental loci/mind palace technique?

A

a type of mnemonics that focuses on a familiar space + associates information w/ places in the space

385
Q

what is the narrative technique?

A

a mnemonics technique that involves adding backstory to information in a familiar space to remember it better

386
Q

why are titles + labels effective for facilitating recall?

A

they help us to link information to pre-existing ideas + broader concepts

387
Q

what are the mnemonic principles?

A
  1. minimize interference
  2. use pre-existing info
  3. use vivid imagery
388
Q

what are the effects of spacing on memory?

A

information is better remembered if encoded in multiple spaced episodes rather than 1 massed episode

389
Q

how much time is optimal for studying?

A

it depends on how long you want to remember it

390
Q

what is encoding specificity?

A

the idea that memories are linked with the context they were encoded in

391
Q

what is context reinstatement?

A

the idea that recalling a memory in the same context it was encoded In should facilitate better retrieval

392
Q

what is the downside of context reinstatement?

A

it makes memories more difficult to retrieve in different contexts

393
Q

what is state-dependent memory?

A

the idea that memories are better retrieved in the same context (location, mood state) they were encoded in

394
Q

what is the issue with state-dependent memory?

A

it is not good for remembering information over long periods of time + thru different contexts

395
Q

what is the link between mood and memory?

A

if mental state is matched from the time of learning and testing, then performance on recall tasks is better

396
Q

what is the importance between being intoxicated and memory?

A

if state of intoxication (w/ weed or alcohol) is matched at the time of testing + learning, performance is better

397
Q

what does testing do for encoding?

A

lead to better performance (practice tests)

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