PSY Exam 3 Flashcards
Learning (John B. Watson)
Is any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
-Elicited responses
-Learning as a result of association
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.
Unonditioned response (UR)
is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
previously neutral stimulus that, through conditioning, has acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
Conditioned response (CR)
is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.
What are key new directions and applications of the principles of conditioning?
Acquisition: refers to the initial stage of learning a new response tendency.
Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.
Spontaneous recovery: is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus generalization: occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination: occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.
Renewal effect
research has uncovered a related phenomenon
Higher-order conditioning
in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning (Skinner & Thorndike)
Stimulus follows the response and strengthens it
-Emitted Responses
-Learning as a result of consequences
Shaping
the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
Resistance to extinction
occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated.
Discriminative stimuli
are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.
How are primary & secondary reinforcers different?
Primary reinforcers -are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
Secondary, or conditioned reinforcers- are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.
Schedule of reinforcement
is a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.
Continuous reinforcement
occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
Intermittent (partial) reinforcement
occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time.
Positive Punishment
arrival of a stimulus after response makes less likely to reoccur
Positive reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.
Negative Punishment
Removal of a stimulus after response makes response less likely to reoccur
Negative reinforcement
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
Escape learning
an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.
Observational learning
occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
Attention- To learn through observation, you must pay attention to another person’s behavior and its consequences.
Retention- You may not have occasion to use an observed response for weeks, months, or even years. Thus, you must store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory.
Reproduction- Enacting a modeled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior.
Motivation- Finally, you are unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless you are motivated to do so. Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe the response is likely to pay off for you.
Behavior modification
is a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning.
What is personality?
Personality- general style of interacting
Trait- Stable predisposition to behave a certain way
State- temporary disposition
Factor analysis
correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables.
Extraversion- People who score high in extraversion are characterized as outgoing, sociable, upbeat, friendly, assertive, and gregarious. They also have a more positive outlook on life and are motivated to pursue social contact, intimacy, and interdependence
Neuroticism- People who score high in neuroticism tend to be anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, and vulnerable. They also tend to exhibit more impulsiveness and emotional instability than others
Openness to experience- Openness is associated with curiosity, flexibility, imaginativeness, intellectual pursuits, interests in new ideas, and unconventional attitudes. People who are high in openness also tend to be tolerant of ambiguity
Agreeableness- Those who score high in agreeableness tend to be warm, sympathetic, trusting, compassionate, cooperative, modest, and straightforward. Agreeableness is also correlated with empathy and helping behavior
Conscientiousness- Conscientious people tend to be diligent, well-organized, punctual, and dependable. Conscientiousness is associated with strong self-discipline and the ability to regulate oneself effectively
Id
-instinctual drives
-pleasure principle
-“devil” (selfish)
Ego
-decision making
-reality principle
-mediator
-“self”
Superego
-Moral
-Right v. wrong
-Responsible for guilt
-“angel”
Conscious
consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.
Preconscious
contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved.
Unconscious
contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness, but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior.
What are defense mechanisms and what purpose do they serve?
a way of coping with unconscious anxiety
-rationalization
Repression- Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
Projection- Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another
Displacement-Diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target
Reaction formation- Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings
Regression- A reversion to immature patterns of behavior
Rationalization- Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
Identification-Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group
Psychosexual stages
are developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality.
Fixation
involves a failure to move forward from one stage to another, as expected.
Oedipal complex
children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent.
Collective unconscious
is a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past.
Compensation
involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities.
Psychodynamic formulations
Poor testability
Unrepresentative samples
Overemphasis on case studies
Contradictory evidence
Sexism
Behaviorism
is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.
Self-efficacy
Self-concept
Self-report
SE- refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.
SC- is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.
SR- inventories are personality tests that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior.
Deliberate deception.
Social desirability bias
Response sets.
Incongruence
is the degree of disparity between one’s self-concept and one’s actual experience.
Need for self-actualization
which is the need to fulfill one’s potential.
Narcissism
is a personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and a tendency to exploit others.
Hindsight bias
the tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.
How are Conditioned Response (CR) extinguished?
Loss of conditioned Response after conditioned stimulus is no longer paired w/ unconditioned stimulus
How can conditioned drug reactions
be explained in terms of CC?
Direct effect: electing a drug effect from a non-drug stimulus
(sight of coffee)
Indirect effect: body’s counteractive effect is conditioned in some cases
How did Skinner improve the study of OC?
-Skinner Box (new vocab, many studies simultaneously)
-Systematized & applied behaviorist principles
What are the four different types of OC?
Positive Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, Negative Reinforcement, and Negative Punishment.
How do the four different schedules of reinforcement affect responses and extinction differently?
Fixed interval schedule (FI, long-lasting responding)- the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs (amount of time vs. behavior)
fixed time interval has elapsed.
Fixed ratio schedule (FR, rapid responding)- the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses. (# vs # of behavior)
Variable interval schedule (VI, long-lasting responding, more resistant to extinction)- the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. (behavior vs set different times)
Variable ratio schedule (VR, rapid responding, more resistant to extinction)- the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. (not a set # of behaviors)
How are operant responses extinguished?
when a response is no longer reinforced following a discriminative stimulus.
Humanistic Perspective
optimistic about human nature
-can rise above animal urges
-largely conscious & rational
-naturally strive to improve
Jung “Analytical Perspective”
Personal & collective unconscious
- Introversion/extroversion
-Archetypes
Alder “Individual Perspective”
-Feelings of inferiority & compensation
Freud “personality theory”
-Psychoanalysis
-approach to therapy
-Unconscious motivation
How do consistency and distinctiveness illustrate key features of personality?
trait: stable predisposition to behave a certain way
state: temporary disposition
What are the key features of the psychoanalytic perspectives in understanding personality?
approach to therapy and personality theory: much of human personality stems from unconscious motivation
According to Freud, what is the 3-part structure of personality (the mind) and the levels of consciousness associated with each?
- ID (unconscious) “devil”
- superego (preconscious) “angel”
- ego (conscious) “self”
What are response tendencies and how to they describe personality according to Skinner?
Personality = collection of stable response tendencies
- focus on operant conditioning
What are the key features of the humanistic perspective in understanding personality?
- optimistic about human nature
- can rise above animal urges
- largely conscious & rational
- naturally strive to improve, but experience road blocks
What are the key concepts Rogers offered to understand personality development?
Personal Centered Theory
- self-concept (who they are)
- conditional/unconditional positive regard
- incongruence (self-concept does not mesh well with actual experience) and anxiety
What is the key contribution of Maslow to understanding personality development?
- self actualization theory
- hierarchy of needs
- “healthy personality”
Interactionism
-behavior = person x situation
- synthesis of social and personality psychology
- situational influence depends on personality
What is the basic structure of personality according to the Big 5 approach?
Openness to Experience> higher IQ
Conscientiousness> better job performance
Extraversion> greater peer acceptance
Agreeableness> more helping behavior
Neuroticism> lower martial satifacation
What is the basic structure of personality according to the Big 5 approach?
Openness to Experience> higher IQ
Conscientiousness> better job performance
Extraversion> greater peer acceptance
Agreeableness> more helping behavior
Neuroticism> lower martial satisfaction
What are three ways psychologist study personality from a biological perspective?
- neuroscience
- heritability
- evolutionary
What are the two dimensions underlying adult attachment styles?
Attachment anxiety>
see self negatively, partner positively
seek high levels of intimacy, approval, responsiveness
express worry, distrust, dependence
Attachment avoidance>
see self positively, partner negatively
avoid closeness, intimacy
express self-sufficiency
What are the key features of the behavioral perspective in understanding personality?
observe and measure behaviors
Secure
See self positively, partner positively
What are the subtypes of Schizophrenia?
-Paranoid
-Catatonic
-Disorganized
Conversion Disorder
actual loss of function
Hypochondriasis
specific complaint
-“doctor shoppers”
Somatization Disorder
History of diverse physical complaints
