PSY 350 Exam 4 Flashcards
What is aggression?
Behavior intended to hurt another person or living being.
Aggression involves behavior that is intentional and directed at another person.
What are the two main types of aggression?
- Emotional Aggression
- Instrumental Aggression
What is the Frustration-Aggression Reformulated Model?
while frustration can lead to aggressive inclinations, it’s not a direct cause of aggressive behavior
What factors can lead to emotional aggression?
ANY event that leads to negative feelings can lead to emotional aggression.
What are Type A personality traits?
- Ambitious
- Driven
- Intense
- High arousal
- Short tempered
What are Type B personality traits?
- Calm
- Relaxed
- Low motivation
- Low arousal
- Easy going
What is the relationship between irritability and Type A personality?
For Type A, more likely that unpleasant feelings/experiences lead to aggression.
What are some unpleasant situations that can provoke aggression?
- Pain
- Heat
- Poverty
- Threat
What does the Excitation Transfer Theory suggest?
Arousal may be mistaken for anger leading to aggression.
What is catharsis in the context of aggression?
Freud’s theory that venting aggressive feelings reduces frustration and likelihood of further aggression.
True or False: Venting your anger makes you less aggressive in the long run.
False
What does Social Learning Theory propose regarding aggression?
We learn to behave aggressively by watching others gain rewards through aggression.
What was the outcome of the Bobo Doll Experiment?
Demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults.
What is the correlation between media violence and real-life aggression according to meta-analyses?
Moderate correlation: r = .31; correcting for publication bias gives r = .08.
What is the role of male-male aggression in sexual selection?
Large size + aggressiveness help defend territory and protect mates/offspring.
What is a Culture of Honor?
A social norm in which individuals are more likely to respond aggressively to insults.
List the factors that contribute to higher homicide rates.
- Male-skewed sex ratio
- Inequality
- Competition
What is the impact of intoxication on aggression?
Intoxication leads to less empathy and greater aggression.
What is the relationship between testosterone and aggression?
Testosterone is linked to competitive and sexual drive, with higher levels associated with greater aggression.
What is the effect of defensive attributional style on aggression?
Tendency to notice threats or interpret ambiguous behavior as threatening increases the likelihood of aggression.
Fill in the blank: Emotional aggression is driven by _______.
[anger/frustration]
Fill in the blank: Instrumental aggression is driven to achieve a _______ but not driven by emotion.
[goal]
What are the two main pathways through which aggression can be expressed?
- Direct
- Indirect
What does the term ‘Alcohol Myopia’ refer to?
Greater focus on own goals, ignoring others’ due to intoxication.
What are the consequences of a mobile/easily stolen property in a culture of honor?
Increased likelihood of insult-related violence.
What is the relationship between self-protection and aggression?
Aggression to defend self or valued others is more likely if the perceived benefit outweighs the cost.
What are Cultures of Honor more likely found in?
Places where there are more women than men, Places where people trust law enforcement, Places where there is little theft
None of the above
What is one method to reduce aggression?
Teach alternative ways to accomplish goals
Additional methods include teaching alternative ways to handle negative feelings, punishing aggressive behavior, and removing threats from the environment.
What are the key topics covered in the wrap-up?
What is Aggression?, Types of Aggression, Sex differences, Freudian vs. Modern perspectives, Goals served by Aggression, Media Violence, Reducing Violence
This summary encapsulates the main areas of discussion.
Who engages in more physical aggression?
Men
Both women and men exhibit similar amounts of indirect aggression.
What is observed about direct aggression among siblings?
No sex differences in direct aggression
This has been replicated in dozens of countries.
In romantic relationships, who is more likely to engage in physical aggression?
Women
However, men are more likely to injure women.
What is Thanatos in the context of aggression?
Self-destructive instinct hypothesized by Freud
This concept runs counter to natural selection and available evidence.
What functional goals does aggression serve?
- Cope with Frustration
- Gain Rewards (material/social)
- Gain/maintain Status
- Protect Self/group members
These goals highlight the adaptive nature of aggression.
What does the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis state?
If someone is aggressive, they must be frustrated; If someone is frustrated, they must engage in aggression
This is the original theory, which has been reformulated.
What are the two types of personalities associated with aggression?
Type A and Type B personalities
Chronic irritability and unpleasant situations can influence aggression.
What theory suggests that excitation can transfer and lead to aggression?
Excitation Transfer Theory
This theory explains how physiological arousal can be misattributed to frustration.
What is Cognitive Neo-Association Theory?
A theory that relates to how negative feelings can lead to aggression
This theory emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in aggressive behavior.
What is the nature of prejudice compared to stereotyping?
Prejudice is more affective in nature, while stereotyping is more behavioral in nature.
What is the naturalistic fallacy?
Natural does NOT equal Good.
What are the evolutionary roots of prejudice and discrimination?
Facilitated group’s cohesion, cooperation, and survival.
What is inclusive fitness in relation to communities?
Communities are mostly kin-based.
What drives intergroup competition and cooperation?
Both have deep evolutionary roots.
What are some linked goals of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination?
- Resource Acquisition
- Self-Protection
- Mental Efficiency/Information Gathering
What contributes to intergroup conflict?
Competition for resources creates a sense of ‘us’ vs. ‘them’.
What is in-group bias?
Positive attitudes/behaviors toward in-group and negative toward out-group.
What theory explains realistic group conflict?
Realistic Group Conflict Theory.
What triggers prejudice and discrimination related to self-protection?
Threats such as disease, violence, and scarcity.
How do stereotypes function in mental efficiency?
They save time and effort, providing ready interpretations of behavior.
What are stereotypes often based on?
They often contain a kernel of truth.
What factors increase stereotyping?
- Positive (vs. Negative) Mood
- High arousal (especially Anger & Anxiety)
- Greater cognitive load
- High Need for Structure
Are prejudices, stereotypes, and discrimination unique to certain cultures or groups?
No, they are observed across societies and different historical periods.
What are some bases for prejudice and discrimination?
- Ethnicity
- Nationality
- Religion
- Sexual Orientation
- Disability
- Gender Identity
- Region
- Class
- Caste
- Ideology
What is the trend regarding explicit racism and sexism in the US?
They appear to be on the decline.
What kind of bigoted views are expressed more subtly now?
Old-fashioned, explicit racism/sexism.
What has been observed in overall prejudice trends?
Overall prejudice has declined toward many groups.
What has changed in societal attitudes toward race and sexuality?
More consistent movement on race and sexual orientation attitudes.
What recent trends have been observed in hate crimes?
Hate crimes and some public expressions of prejudice have become somewhat more frequent.
What are the negative impacts of discrimination?
Discrimination has a number of negative impacts on individuals and societies.
Fill in the blank: Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination are linked to _______.
[resource acquisition, self-protection, mental efficiency]
True or False: Only groups that hold power show tendencies of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.
False
What are the negative impacts of discrimination on individuals and societies?
Discrimination has a number of negative impacts including wage gaps, economic costs, health and psychological costs, and hate crimes.
These impacts can affect both individuals and the broader society.
What is a stereotype?
A generalized belief about members of a group that can be negative or positive, explicit or implicit, with a cognitive component.
Stereotypes can influence perceptions and interactions between different groups.
What is prejudice?
A generalized attitude toward members of a group that can be negative or positive, explicit or implicit, with an affective component.
Prejudice is often rooted in stereotypes and can lead to discrimination.
What defines discrimination?
Behavior directed toward members of a group based on their identity, which can be negative or positive, and has a behavioral component.
Discrimination can occur at both individual and institutional levels.
True or False: Discrimination is always motivated by prejudice and stereotypes.
False.
While prejudice and stereotypes can lead to discrimination, they do not always result in discriminatory behavior.
Fill in the blank: We can think of ________ as being more affective in nature, and ________ as being more behavioral in nature.
prejudice, discrimination
This distinction highlights the emotional versus action-oriented aspects of these concepts.
What are Allport’s conditions for successful inter-group contact?
- Outgroup members possess counter-stereotypical traits/skills
- Groups are of equal status in contact setting
- Contact occurs at individual level
- Contact is rewarding
- Groups work together toward shared goal
These conditions help reduce prejudice through effective inter-group interactions.
What is stereotype threat?
A psychological phenomenon where individuals fear confirming negative stereotypes about their group, leading to self-doubt and worse performance.
Research has shown mixed evidence regarding the real-world effects of stereotype threat.
What does meta-analysis indicate about inter-group contact and prejudice?
Meta-analyses have found a robust, moderate effect of contact on reducing prejudice (r = -.21).
This suggests that positive interactions between groups can effectively reduce biased attitudes.
What are the potential effects of perceived threats to humanity on prejudice?
People made to think that robots may take human jobs show temporary decreases in prejudice and discrimination towards other human ethnic/racial groups.
This phenomenon is linked to increased feelings of panhumanism.
What is the significance of stereotype activation?
Stereotype activation can lead to fear of confirming stereotypes, self-doubt, and ultimately worse performance in relevant tasks.
This concept highlights the psychological burden that stereotypes can impose on individuals.
What does recent evidence suggest about stereotype threat?
A growing body of evidence suggests stereotype threat may not be real, with large-scale studies failing to find effects of making race or gender salient on performance.
This challenges previous assumptions about the impact of stereotype threat on performance.
What are the economic costs associated with discrimination?
Economic costs include wage and opportunity gaps, and broader impacts on economic productivity.
These costs can affect overall societal welfare and economic growth.
What is the relationship between cooperation and prejudice reduction?
Cooperation expands the sense of ‘We’, views out-group members as individuals, motivates accurate understanding, and replaces competition as a way to get resources.
These factors contribute to reducing prejudice and fostering positive inter-group relations.
What was the finding of the meta-analysis regarding stereotype threat and gender?
Meta-analysis suggests strong evidence of publication bias, with studies finding evidence of stereotype threat being more likely to get published.
This raises questions about the reliability of existing data on stereotype threat effects.
What can be concluded about the true effect size of stereotype threat?
The true effect size of stereotype threat is likely close to 0, suggesting minimal real-world impact.
This conclusion is supported by recent multi-lab replication failures.
Types of Groups
Social Groups
Aggregate Groups
Social Group Characteristics
Comprised of individuals who interact and identify with one another.
Aggregate Group Characteristics
Collections of individuals in the same place but without significant interaction.
Features of “Real” Groups
Interdependence, Structure, Cohesion
Why do people join groups?
Social needs, Goal achievement, Identity formation
What are the effects of grouping?
Early research shows improved performance in presence of others (Triplett)
What are conditions to enhance wisdom of crowds?
Diversity of Opinion, Independence, Decentralization, Aggregation
Factors affecting group decisions
Groupthink, Group Polarization
What is groupthink?
A phenomenon where the desire for group cohesion leads to poor decision-making. Famous examples include the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
What is group polarization?
Group discussions often lead to more extreme positions than those initially held by individual members.
How to prevent dysfunctions in Group-Decision Making?
Assigning Devil’s Advocate
Encouraging Dissent
Prioritizing Task over Social Harmony
Seeking outside advice
What is assigning devil’s advocate?
Encourages critical evaluation of ideas.
What is encouraging dissent?
Creating an environment where members feel free to express conflicting opinions.
What is prioritizing task over social harmony?
Ensuring that the group remains focused on achieving its objectives.
Conditions for Effective Minority Influence
Consistency in minority view
Willingness to compromise
Presence of allies
Group’s motivation to make accurate decisions
What is social loafing?
The tendency of individuals to put in less effort when working in groups compared to when working alone.
Factors enhancing social loafing
Lack of identification of individual contributions
Perceived insignificance of the task
Low group cohesion
What are some preventative measures for social loafing?
Clearly identifying individual contributions.
Making tasks meaningful.
Clarifying the significance of individual effort to group success.
Increasing group cohesiveness.
What effects Social Facilitation?
Positive orientation (Extraversion and High Self Esteem) = positive affects of audience on performance
Negative orientation (Neuroticism and Low Self Esteem) = negative effects
What is the N-Effect?
Reduction in performance due to presence of more vs. fewer competitors in situation.
Why is the N-Effect present?
Decreased likelihood of social comparison, increased cognitive load
What is deindividuation?
Loss of personal identity when in a crowd and behavior disinhibition.
What are examples of deindividuation?
Mob violence, stampedes, looting, etc.
Classic Account of Deindividuation
Anonymity & reduced Accountability
* Distracts from individual self/values/beliefs
* Result: Lose sense of self
Social Identity Account of Deindividuation
Deindividuation effects = people becoming MORE sensitive to norms of immediate group/situation, NOT losing sense of SELF
What is social loafing?
Phenomenon where individual group members reduce effort as groups get bigger
When are crowds wise?
When allowed to consult with others and revise
Sometimes an “inner crowd” (repeated judgements from the same person)
