PSY 3456 Final Exam Flashcards
air pollution
the release of pollutants into the air that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole
noise
unwanted sound, perceived as an environmental stressor and nuisance
health effects of noise
- sleep disturbances
- increase in blood pressure
- increase in heart rate
how did Meyers and Ferrari decrease noise in university residence halls (air nose and light pollution) ?
through the use of instructions, modeling, feedback and group reinforcement
benefits of the reduction of noise in residents halls in the Meyers and Ferrari study
less disturbance of sleep and study
how did Ferrari and Chan reduce the volume of headphones?
the use of warning signs and a confederate student lowering their headphone volume following a polite request
how did Wilson and Hopkins reduce the noise levels in 7th and 8th grade classrooms?
the use of an automated system that turned off music when noise level exceeded a reasonable level
some of the health problems associated with light pollution
problems with sleep and increased stress
five ways to reduce light pollution
- aim light below the horizontal
- avoid over-lighting
- use reflective lane markings and reflective clothing
- smart lighting that switches on with you
- avoiding full daylight bulbs with a high blue content
why most people are not aware of air quality levels
air pollution is often imperceptible, and even when it is noticeable people’s perceptions can often be inaccurate
pros and cons for wind energy
- wind energy is a clean source, but wind farms can pose a threat for birds and bats
- they also provide intermittent power output
pros and cons for solar energy
solar energy is clean but solar farms can lead to habitat loss and only provide intermittent power output
trends in energy use
- increase in natural gas and renewable energy, a decrease in coal and stable use of petroleum and nuclear
how large is the renewable energy segment and types of renewable energy
- 11%
- hydroelectric, wind, solar, biofuels, woods, biomass waste and geothermal
largest segment of energy use
transportation
how did researchers in the Winett study confirm the people watched the program?
- they verified watching the program by telling people viewing the program to check a point in the evaluation when filling out the form
how did Winett et. al. use television modeling to reduce residential heating and AC energy use?
- they had them watch a program that discussed the motivating operations for saving energy and modeled ways to save energy
- also gave them a 10-page booklet with tips to save energy
three factors that influence the efficacy of modeling (energy and conservation)
- vide models work as well as in-person models
- a model judged as similar to you works better than one very dissimilar
- a model you admire is more effective than a neutral model
incentives in Bekker study (energy & conservatio)
- depending on the savings, they could earn free coffee, a movie night, free ice cream, or a pizza party at a higher level
how did Bekker et. al. reduce energy use in a residential hall?
- using prompts and daily feedback and a reward for electricity savings
- they also put up smaller signs on tips to save energy near driers, TVs, light switches, and computers
type of prompt used by Luyben to get people to turn off lights when the room was not in use
- a single letter prompt asking faculty to turn off the lights
- in one group, a bright yellow poster was placed next to each light switch and/or exit door in the classroom urging classroom users to turn out the lights after specified class periods were added
Hayes & Cone use of a practical method to decrease residential energy use
monthly letter with power bill showing energy use an actual dollar amounts saved
how did Staats et. al. change thermostat settings in a large office building?
- a brochure and feedback to request people to uncover all grates and to adjust all thermostats to identical settings in order to reduce natural gas consumption
how did Kohlenberg reduce peak energy use
- using information, feedback, and incentives
- they found a combination of feedback and incentives to be most effective
pros and cons for uranium based nuclear energy
carbon-free and a reliable source of power, but the potential for radiation leaks and plant meltdowns are a major concern
pros and cons for thorium based nuclear energy
thorium reactors can be easily stopped and cannot meltdown
- they do not operate under extreme pressure and produce less waste
how did Van Houten et. al. reduce elevator use?
by increasing the door delay, increasing the wait time for an elevator
three compatible solutions to clean and dependable energy
- use of diverse clean sources that fit each ecological location (technology)
- reduce overall energy use (change behavior)
- balance energy use with recycling
traffic calming
refers to changes in road design that reduce speeding
results of the Reagan et. al. study (transportation)
incentives of $20/ week that could be earned for not speeding were effective in reducing speeding
in the Van Houten and Nau study comparing the feedback sign with police enforcement, which treatment was more effective?
public posting was four times as cost effective than the police enforcement
how did Van Houten, Nau, and Marini reduce speeding? What was their first finding?
- by posting the percentage of drivers not speeding on a highway sign along with the best record
- using information, feedback and incentives
- they found that weekly feedback was as effective as daily feedback
some equity issues with making changes to fleet fuel efficiency and increasing tax on gasoline
- increasing the fuel price effects the poor more than others, while changes of fleet fuel efficiency does not adversely influence the poor
two ways to increase the purchase of electric vehicles
- provide cash incentives for purchase
- allow electric vehicles to use HOV lanes with only one occupant
what effect do high occupancy lanes have on carpooling?
they significantly increase carpooling
effect of the Jacob et. al. carpooling study
preferential parking and redeemable coupons increased carpooling and preferential parking alone was just as effective as preferential parking and coupons
how can we reduce the amount of fuel used?
- carpooling
- preferential lanes
- bicycle, walk, or transit
- electric vehicles
- ride sharing apps
what percentages of vehicles on the road are occupied by only one person?
about 75%
examples of traffic calming designs
- speed bumps, humps and tables
- roundabout circles
- narrow roads or lanes
- raised intersections, changes in road texture
five major findings of the Van Houten and Nau 1983 analysis of feedback signs
- using a lenient criteria for speeding which allowed posting high numbers producing a larger reduction in speeding than w/ use of a stringent criteria
- effects of the sign persisted for at least 6 km on a freeway
- effects of the feedback sign produced larger long term effects than a parked police car; produced an overreaction effect
- effects of the feedback sign produced the same effect as the air patrol speed enforcement condition and that the combination of the air patrol and posting produced an even larger effect
- the warning program produced a larger effect than giving citations and that the feedback plus the warning program produced even larger effects
how can you reduce the chance of pedestrians violating the “don’t walk” signal at crosswalks?
by keeping the wait time short
link between walking, bicycling and safety
many people will not walk or bicycle if they believe it to be unsafe
many pedestrian crashes happen at night; what are good strategies cyclists can take to improve the odds?
- wear reflective material on parts of the body that move
- wear reflective clothing or a reflective vest
- use LED flashing lights
- don’t enter a possible drivers’ path unless you can see whether a car is present and avoid the right hook and left cross
what does the trend toward obesity look like in the US?
obesity has steadily increased in the US
how does the US compare with Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands on the percentage of trips by bicycle?
each of these countries has far more bicycle trips
results of the Bloomberg and Van Houten study
motorists increased their passing distance
design factor that can reduce the danger from turning vehicles
narrowing the turning radius
how can one change the yielding culture at crosswalks?
- use of low cost engineering
- a police enforcement program that uses warnings
- the use of feedback signs
- establishing motivating operations for yielding right-of-way to pedestrians
what is the trend in pedestrian and bicycle fatal crashes since 2008?
steady increasing trend
the relationship between speed and pedestrian traffic deaths
- people are not typically killed if drivers are driving 25 mph
- the fatality rate increases exponentially after that
what is a low cost way to decrease crashes between turning vehicles and pedestrians at intersections with traffic signals
- allow pedestrians to start crossing before drivers are allowed to turn; called a leading pedestrian phase
where should signs be installed to prompt or remind drivers to yield to pedestrians in the crosswalk when turning at signalized intersections?
next to the traffic signal because that is where they are looking
how can you reduce the likelihood of a multiple threat crash at a marked crosswalk without a traffic signal?
- putting in advanced stop or yield markings
- teaching pedestrians to stop before stepping out from behind a vehicle that is stopped close to the crosswalk
- treating passing a crosswalk at speed as a crosswalk as reckless endangerment
three proven methods to reduce the chance of a pedestrian fatality at an uncontrolled crosswalk on a multilane road?
- use of a hybrid beacon or a rectangular rapid flashing beacon
- use of advanced stop or yield lines
- installing a refuge island or median
how many trees does it take to absorb all the CO2 we produce?
- planting six trees per month is sufficient to compensate for the CO2 we produce, taking into account the annual global average of approx. 6 tons of CO2 per person
variables that can increase bicycle and rail use
- reduce the cost
- convenient access
- more comfortable all weather facilities
- reduce time to get to work
- free use
- reinforcement
how did Hyeonjun Hwant et. al. increase bus ridership in Seoul Korea?
decorating 100 buses with popular animation characters
how much carbon can one tree absorb?
- mature trees absorb carbon dioxide at a rate of 48 lb per year
- in one year, an acre of forest absorbs twice the CO2 produced by an average car’s annual mileage
how did Bachman & Katzev increase bus ridership?
offering free rides and getting people to make a personal commitment
how did Everett et. al. 1974 study increase bus use?
by offering tokens which could purchase backup reinforcers
how does weather effect bus ridership?
ridership is down in rain, snow, wind, and colder temperatures
who was Johnny Appleseed?
a man who singlehandedly planted apple trees most of his life
how did San Diego and Houston increase ridership?
- they reduced fares and providing large service increases
- shared electric vehicles
what is the relationship between trees and CO2 levels?
trees reduce the level of CO2
some of the important forests
- canadian boreal forest
- temperate forests
- amazon basin
- congo forest
- russian taiga
- indonesian rain forest
what are the advantages of mixed forests over monocultures?
- they can outperform monocultures
- they can include nitrogen fixing trees
- they increase the diversity of life in the forests
how can you mitigate a conflict of interest? (ethics)
- disclose and manage the conflict; could involve the disqualification of conflicted staff from any role in the research
- have an independent person collect and evaluate data
- have an independent party spot check data collection and analysis
conflict of interest
- refers to a special set of competing contingencies
- on the one hand, we want to conduct high quality work that can be replicated by others, but on the other hand we may receive reinforcement only if we obtain positive results
three review categories
exempt research- includes observation of public behavior and standard practices in education
expedited review- research that involves little or no risk over normal activity
full review- involves risks greater than usual or work with a vulnerable population
how can you ensure potential participants understand the benefits and risks involved in participation?
- ensure they have the legal and mental capacity to make a decision
- determine whether they can describe the benefits and risk in their own words
- the language used should be age and educationally appropriate
- ensure there is no coercion or undue influence
why is the consent process so important?
the participants need to be able to decide whether the benefits outweigh the risk to make an informed decision
practices for handling risks
- providing anonymity or processing confidentiality
- avoiding coercion
- monitoring risk
- balancing risks against benefits
relationship between benefits and risks in research and clinical practice
- benefits should always outweigh risks in clinical practice and research
- although research can have risks, they should be understood by the participant and should be outweighed by the potential benefits
four principles of the canadian ethical code arranged from most to least importance
- respect for the dignity of the person
- responsible caring
- integrity in relationships
- responsibility to society
four benefits of the HSIRB Process
- it affirms respect for the dignity of each person
- it contributes to public trust of research
- it protects researchers
- reduces the probability of incidents
can we have a science of ethics?
determining what behaviors to value are not likely within the realm of science
why is ethics so important in research and clinical practice?
because people are capable of horrible acts without some method to insure ethical practice
four threats to ethical behavior
- unitarianism applied to people- treating people as objects or things; viewing people’s worth as what they contribute
- scientism- places science as the highest value; at a higher extreme, it puts answering scientific questions above other considerations
- rationalization- biased justification of our behavior; we are prone to doing this
- the greater good- concerned with making a perfect world; explains that the ends (results) justify the means to do so
