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PSY 111 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Psychology

A

psychology is the scientific study of the mind (not observable) and behaviour (observable)

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2
Q

What scientific model does psychology use?

A

Scientific practitioner model

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3
Q

William Wundt

A

First psychologist - introspection

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4
Q

Structuralism

A

relied on trained observers to report experiences, and stimuli that always produced the same reaction – relied upon reaction time

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5
Q

Functionalism: William James

A

accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection – as organisms adapt to their environment, psychology studying the function of behaviours.

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6
Q

Psychoanalytic theory – Freud

A

emphasized the unconscious mind – dream analysis, free association, Freudian slips – controversial but contemporary psychotherapy has found to be effective

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7
Q

Gestalt Psychology

A

didn’t have a large influence outside Europe – emphasized the whole sensory experience not just individual components – short lived movement as a result of WWII Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) , Wolfgang Köhler(1887-1967)

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8
Q

Behaviorism

A

rejected study of the mind and conscious experience, focusing entirely on observable behaviour. Pavlov conditioning reflexes through classical conditioning – pairing of neutral stimulus with UCS – NS alone producing the UCR

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9
Q

J.B Watson

A

focused on learned behaviour, and the conditioning of emotion (Little albert)

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10
Q

Skinner

A

focused on learned behaviour, studied reinforcement and punishment (operant conditioning)

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11
Q

Humanism

A

rose from dissatisfaction with dominant perspectives – determinism of behaviour, pessimism of psychoanalysis

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12
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

behaviour is motivated by human needs, satisfy basic needs and higher needs would motivate behaviour

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13
Q

Carl Rogers

A

Humanism developed client centered therapy – therapists needing to display: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, empathy

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14
Q

Cognitive Revolution

A

1950’s: mind became the focus of research (Chomsky)

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15
Q

Multicultural psychology

A

culture has a major influence upon individual behaviour, dominant psychological theories arising in WEIRD cultures (westernized, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) – these do not generalize well to other cultures. Thus, indigenous psychologies are developing world wide.

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16
Q

Biopsychology

A

combines psychological methods with physiological and neuroscientific methods – how the function of the nervous system generates behaviour

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17
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

how does our evolution, and evolutionary adaptions give rise to behaviour?

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18
Q

Sensation/perception

A

perceptual psychologists are interested in sensation and the conscious perceptions they give rise to – visual perception a major focus.

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19
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

study of the mind and mental processes, aims to understand how cognition and thoughts relate to actions and experience

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20
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

psychologists study change across lifespan

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21
Q

Personality Psychology

A

5 factor model – OCEAN (openness, consciousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

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22
Q

Social Psychology

A

study of how we interact and relate to others- prejudice, attraction, interpersonal conflict.

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23
Q

Health Psychologist

A

study the interaction of biological, social and psychological influences on health, contributing to: public policy, research, intervention and education.

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24
Q

Clinical psychology

A

focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other patterns of problematic behaviour.

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25
Q

Forensic psychology

A

concerned with psychological concepts in context of the justice system: eyewitness testimony, children’s testimony, competency of defendant to stand trial.

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26
Q

Information as a continuum

A

Data - information - knowledge - wisdom

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27
Q

Learning

A

Learning in the most general sense , the contemporary view of learning is that people construct new knowledge and understanding based upon what they know and already believe. – Bransford.

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28
Q

Literacy

A

the quality or state of being literate – the ability to read and write

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29
Q

Information Literacy

A

the relationships individuals have with information, the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information

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30
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 1

A

Recognition of the need for information - determine the nature and extent of information needed

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31
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 2

A

Finding information efficiently and effectively

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32
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 3

A

Critically evaluate and process information

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33
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 4

A

management of information collected or generated

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34
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 5

A

Application of prior knowledge to create new concepts or new understanding

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35
Q

Information Literacy - Standard 6

A

Using information with understanding, acknowledging culture, ethical, legal and economical issues surrounding the information

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36
Q

6 Gaps in Graduate skill sets

A

contextual skills, Business acumen, filtering and synthesising information, focus on business context, current awareness, people skills

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37
Q

Research

A

diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject – worlds biggest industry

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38
Q

Science

A

a branch of knowledge dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged, and showing the operation of general laws – science is also a way of thinking.

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39
Q

Naivee empiricism

A

denying of existence unless the thing can be physically observed

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40
Q

Sophisticated empiricism

A

accept existence of concepts via indirect observation

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41
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

specific to general – data –theory (if it’s true in a particular situation assume it to be true in general) Induction is prone to errors

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42
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

general to specific – theory to data (prediction) if the premises are true then the conclusion is valid.

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43
Q

Theory

A

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are not mere guesses, although some try to dismiss theories by claiming so.

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44
Q

What makes a good theory

A

Parsimony, testability, refutation, functional, valid

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45
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if – a theory is correct. Hypotheses apply a theory to a narrow set of conditions and make predictions about the relationships among variables

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46
Q

Nominal Fallacy

A

mistaking the name of a phenomenon for an explanation

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47
Q

All or none bias

A

assuming statements to be true or false – many scientific findings are probabilistic – good theories will not explain everything under every condition.

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48
Q

Similarity uniqueness paradox

A

everything has infinite similarities and differences, errors occurring where similarities or differences become the exclusive focus:
Similarities obscure differences and differences obscure similarities.

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49
Q

Barnum Statement

A

apparently insightful but actual a banal statement.
General characterisations attributed to an individual are perceived to be true of them, even though thestatementsare such generalizations, they could apply to almost anyone.

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50
Q

Behavioural Variables

A

any observable response of an organism

51
Q

Stimulus variables

A

environmental factors that have actual or potential effects on behavioral variables.

52
Q

Organismic Variables

A

characteristics of an organism that can be used to classify the organism for research purposes

53
Q

Dependent Variables

A

measurable/observable variable eg. Physical performance, speed, force. However, in psychology DV’s are not always directly observable eg. Joy, attention, stress etc.

54
Q

Independent Variable

A

variable manipulated by the experimenter

55
Q

True experiment

A

variables are manipulated by the experimenter

56
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

IV cannot be manipulated, or it would be unethical to do so

57
Q

Constructs

A

phenomena studied by psychologists might not literally exist – psychologists thus use constructs as if they exist. Psychologists cant always directly observe the phenomena they study, thus what can be observed is what is thought to be related to the phenomena.

58
Q

Operational definitions

A

procedures or operations that specific how to manipulate or measure a construct.

59
Q

Control Variable

A

variables that are factors that are potential IV’s. It is known they may affect the DV. Not of direct interest but are held constant to avoid confounding.

60
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

variables that are uncontrolled – contributes to random unexplained error (variability) in the data.

61
Q

Construct Validity

A

: extent to which Iv’s and Dv’s measure what they are intended to.
Construct validity is maximized through careful consideration of operational definitions

62
Q

Face Validity

A

do IV’s and DV’s appear to reflect or measure what they are intended to measure – research lacking facial validity may be harshly challenged.

63
Q

Internal Validity

A

extent to which causal statements about the relations among variables can be made

64
Q

External validity

A

the extent to which findings of an experiment can be generalized

65
Q

Psychological research goals

A

description of behaviour, prediction of behaviour, & explanation of behaviour

66
Q

Descriptive research

A

describes phenomena as they exist (what oppose to why)

This research observes what is (no manipulation) – might be the perfect form of research for a given question.

67
Q

Prediction

A

what is the direction of association among variables?

68
Q

Positive association

A

If one variable increases and the other also increases

69
Q

Negative association

A

If one variable decreases and the other also decreases

70
Q

Descriptive research methods

A

case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys

71
Q

Case Study

A

in-depth observation of 1 person in a small group – useful when a phenomenon is of interest, not well understood, or difficult to produce experimentally (Qualitative research)

Limitations: case may not be representative of the larger population – conclusions lack external validity – cases are carried out as phenomenon is unusual
Subject to researcher bias –researchers are prone to seeing what they expect, difficult to observe free from expectation based on existing theory.

72
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

in-depth observation of phenomenon in its natural setting.
Findings often have clear application to the real world as observations are mad ein the real world.

Limitations:

  • awareness of being observed may affect ones behaviour
  • generalizability – can the observations of one group be applied to another group (unobserved)
  • Bias – researcher expectations
73
Q

Surveys

A

asking questions of a large sample about their attitudes and behaviours, conducted using interviews or questionnaires.

Limitations:

  • relies upon honest report from participants
  • people may want to present themsleves in the best light possible
  • participants may honestly misjudge their attitudes
74
Q

Stratified sampling

A

involves determining the proportion of total sample that each group will make up and then randomly sampling from each category

75
Q

Correlational Research

A

identify and describe relationships between variables.

Research design that investigates the magnitude and direction of association between two or more variables

76
Q

Pearson product moment correlation

A

strength and direction of association of two variables can be quantified by a correlation coefficient – ‘r’

77
Q

Spurious correlations

A

– associations where none really exist eg. Positive correlation between contraception and buying home appliances….

78
Q

Between subject designs

A

At least 2 different groups - participants are randomly assigned to 1 group

79
Q

Within-subject designs

A

Two conditions - participants are involved in both conditions

80
Q

Quasi experiment design

A

Between subjects - lack of random assignment

81
Q

Psychology is the study of variability

A

characteristics and behaviours of humans are highly variable, the ultimate aim of psychology is to explain causes of variability, by understanding the causes of variability we can predict behaviour

82
Q

Behaviour is probabilistic

A

studying more predicts better academic outcomes yet does not guarantee anything – depends on what study means –strategies, meta cognition, how much time spent on a task – but lots of other things can predict academic outcomes eg. Things about you, and what you are studying

83
Q

Subjective probability

A

personal belief in the chance of something happening, the informal probability that has no mathematical formula

84
Q

Objective Probability

A

probability estimated by using a mathematical equation, based on concrete observations.

85
Q

Conditional probability

A

the probability of an event occurring given that some other condition is true

86
Q

Categorical/Nominal Data

A

things that can be counted, how many things are there

87
Q

Measurements

A

things that can be measured, how much of something is there

88
Q

Ordinal Scale

A

inherent order (ranks), some information about quantity, moving along the scale means a change in how much of something there is, steps may not be equal

89
Q

Interval Scale

A

order + equal intervals, mathematical operations (addition or subtraction) – measures how much of something there is, and can calculate the difference between scores (does not have a true 0 – 0 on the scale does not mean absence of the thing, and scores can be less than 0) eg, Temp

90
Q

Discrete data

A

specific values, typically whole numbers eg. Categorical data – smoker vs non smoker. Ordinal data such as place in a race, or level of education is also discrete.

91
Q

Continuous Data

A

unlimited resolution between minimum and maximum eg. Volume of beer drunk at the beach on a hot day 0ml, 350ml, 750ml vs none, some, or too much (likert scales) continuous data can be converted into discrete categories but not vice versa.

92
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

describe or summarize sets of data – primary use is to describe central tendency and variability.

93
Q

Central Tendency

A

observations cluster around a fixed point – different measures of central tendency have different definitions of the center of the data set, eg. Mean, median, mode.

94
Q

Data presented by text

A

data is described using text and relevant statistics, used for results that are important to the major hypotheses and that demand full description

95
Q

Data presented by Table

A

simplify text and are useful when summarizing a large amount of related data in a compact form – often used for inferential statistics, such as multiple regression. Tables require a brief title that explains what the table is showing.

96
Q

Data presented by graphs

A

eg. bar graph, histograms, pie charts

97
Q

How graphs can be misleading

A

Omitting the baseline, manipulating the Y axis, cherry-picking data, using the wrong graph, going against conventions

98
Q

Culture

A

shared rules that govern behaviour of a group of people and enable the members of that group to co-exist and survive

Culture is shared, culture is learned, culture has a powerful influence on behaviour, culture is systematic and organized, culture is largely invisible, may be loose or tight.

99
Q

Terror Management theory

A

culture as a buffer against general anxiety of our morality - being a member of a culture reduces this feeling

100
Q

Creation of shared reality theory

A

human need to feel that others feel that same way about things (Culture)

101
Q

By product of human interaction theory

A

by interacting, we share beliefs and behaviour, culture resulting from repeated interactions.

102
Q

Enculturation

A

Culture is transmitted from generation to generation through the process of enculturation:

  • indirect process of learning the rules, norms, and behaviour of a culture.
  • Socialization which is direct is also important for cultural learning
103
Q

Cultural Psychology

A

studies the way people are affected by the culture they live in (individual psychological processes are shaped by cultural context)

104
Q

Cross Cultural psychology

A

compares similarities and differences in behaviour across different cultures and societies.

105
Q

Theoretical issues in cross-cultural psychology

A

Absolutism – assumes psychological phenomena is identical across all cultures
Relativism – assumes that all human behaviour is culturally determined
Universalism – assumes there a basic principles of underlying behaviours, but culture determines the display of these principles – dominant perspective

106
Q

Emic

A

insider perspective, culture specific involves focusing on one group and examining particular psychological aspects of that group

107
Q

Etic

A

outsider perspective – cross cultural and involves the search for commonalities and differences amongst different cultures.

108
Q

Types of cross-cultural studies

A

comparison studies, validation studies, unpacking studies

109
Q

Tight vs Loose cultures

A

= refers to the extent to which people are required to conform to social norms eg. Japan = tight, Canada = Loose

110
Q

Culture Shock

A

moving from one culture to another can lead to dis-orientation and anxiety as they try to adapt the rules, practices and expectations of another culture

111
Q

Acculturation

A

Research on the cultural adaptation scale. It is suggested people will find adaptation easier if: people have culture specific knowledge, fluency of language, more extensive contact with host nationals, residents rather than sojourners (short-term temporary resident), home culture is similar to host culture.
Adaptation follows a steep learning curve with increases in the first 6 months tapering off.

112
Q

Multiculturalism

A

the presence of several or multiple ethnic groups within a society
Australia has a long history of multiculturalism – 700 tribe nations, 200-250 different spoken languages (tribe nations have separate political systems and laws)

113
Q

ethnocentrism

A

tendency for one persons own culture to influence the way they see the rest of the world

114
Q

Reasons to understand misconceptions about psychology

A
  • psychologists can prepare themselves to counter perceptions
  • counter objections from policymakers
  • understand human nature
  • explain the significance of findings
115
Q

Criticism 1

A

Psychology is just common sense

116
Q

Criticism 2

A

Psychology doesn’t use research methods

117
Q

Criticism 3

A

Psychology cannot yield meaningful generalisations as everyone is unique

118
Q

Criticism 4

A

Psychology doesn’t yield repeatable results

119
Q

Criticism 5

A

Psychology cannot make precise predictions

120
Q

Criticism 6

A

Psychology is not useful to society

121
Q

Animal research

A

7-8% of published research in research areas of; learning, memory, emotion, brain response to injury or disease, drug efficacy

122
Q

National Health & Medical Research Council – Scientific code for the use of animals in experiments

A

Replacement: must actively search and develop alternative methods
Reduction: must use no more than the minimum number of animals required to obtain statistically reliable results
Refinement: procedure should be constantly refined to minimize pain and distress

123
Q

The national statement (2007) consists of 5 parts:

Ethics

A
  • values and principles of ethical conduct
  • themes in research ethics
  • Ethics considerations specific to research methods or fields
  • Ethical considerations to specific participants
  • Process of research governance and ethical review.
124
Q

Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islanders

A

spirit, integrity, cultural continuity, equity, reciprocity, respect, responsibility

Psychology (1 decks)

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