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1
Q

Gestalt principles

A

Proximity; Similarity; Enclosure;Symmetry;Closure; Continuity; Connection;Figure/Ground;

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2
Q

Information Processing Theory

A

Idea that humans process the information they receive like a computer: mind has attention mechanisms for bringing information in; working memory for actively manipulating information; and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future

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3
Q

Nocturia

A

Need to use the bathroom in the middle of the night

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4
Q

Mechanisms to Aid Memory Retrieval

A

Serial recall; primacy and recency (things at start and end of list)

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5
Q

Sensory memory

A

retained just long enough to be transferred to short term memory; or discarded if attention is not being paid. Iconic=visual; echoic=hearing; haptic=touch

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6
Q

Procedural vs Declarative Memories

A

Types of long-term memory. Procedural- how to perform tasks. Declarative- memories that are consciously recalled

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7
Q

Semantic vs Episodic Memories

A

Types of declarative memory. Semantic- memory of facts. Episodic- memory of events

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8
Q

Implicit vs Explicit Memories

A

Implicit- unconscious. Explicit- conscious

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9
Q

Korsakoff Syndrome

A

Memory dysfunction: amnesia; invented memories; apathy caused by thiamine deficiency and common in alcoholics

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10
Q

Memory decay

A

Belief that memory fades due to passage of time; more relevant to short term memory; rehearsal keeps in tact

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11
Q

Interference (memory)

A

interaction between new material and old (ex. Professor can’t memorize student names b/c he’s already memorized so many)

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12
Q

Source monitoring error

A

mind constructs memory by assembling all sources and can have difficulty separating them (ex. Crime witness believes they saw a crime but only read about it)

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13
Q

Long term potentiation

A

persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity

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14
Q

Theory of language development: Nativism

A

(ie the nativist hypothesis) characteristics are hard wired at birth; language is not learned. No human society has not used language; children just pick it up naturally

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15
Q

Theory of language development: Empiricsm

A

language is a learned behavior acquired during early years

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16
Q

Theory of language development: Interactionism

A

language develops from interaction of biological; cognitive and environmental influences (a more broad definition)

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17
Q

Causal inference

A

one event caused another

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18
Q

Anaphoric inference

A

connects objects/persons from one to another sentence (ex. John took the aspirin. He is better. He is referring to john)

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19
Q

Instrumental inference

A

inference about the tools/methods used (ex. John took the aspirin. He must have swallowed it not snorted)

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20
Q

Predictive/forward inference

A

inference about the outcome of an event (ex. John took an aspirin. He will soon get better)

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21
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Understanding written/spoken language (as opposed to producing)

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22
Q

Broca’s area

A

Producing language. Broca=boca=mouth=speaking

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23
Q

Piaget

A

Stages of Cognitive Development

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24
Q

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development: Sensorimotor

A

Age 0-2: simple reflexes; egocentric; experience world through 5 sensesLearn: object permanance, cause-and-effect, language

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25
Q

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development: Preoperational

A

Age 2-7: egocentric; lack of logical thinking and presence of magical thinking (making causal relationships where there is none). Engage in pretend play.Struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people

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26
Q

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development: Concrete Operational

A

Age 7-12: Understand concepts attached to concrete situations. Can see multiple points of view. Understand time and space; but not as independent concepts. Know conservation. Less egocentric.

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27
Q

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development: Formal operational

A

Age 12+: abstract reasoning/problem solving

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28
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Making judgements about event probabilities based on how easily examples come to mind Ex. Reads about several lottery winners and believes he is more likely to win it

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29
Q

Escalation of commitment (Heuristic)

A

increased investment in a decision based on cumulative prior investment Ex. Might as well buy a 5th lottery ticket to get some payout

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30
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

Making judgments about something based on its similarity to a prototypical example of that category; stereotyping

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31
Q

Belief perserverance (bias)

A

Bias. Unwillingness to admit that foundational premises are incorrect even when shown convincing evidence to the contrary

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32
Q

Confirmation bias

A

We love to agree with people who agree with us

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33
Q

Ingroup Bias

A

overestimate the abilities and value of our immediate group at the expense of people we don’t really know.

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34
Q

Gambler’s Fallacy (bias)

A

mistaken belief that; if something happens more frequently than normal during some period; it will happen less frequently in the future

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35
Q

Hindsight bias

A

the inclination; after an event has occurred; to see the event as having been predictable; despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it

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36
Q

Components of emotion

A

physiological arousal; an expressive behavior and experienced thoughts/feelings (Order/relation depends on theory)

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37
Q

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A

Stimulus->ANS arousal->interpretation->emotion. The physiological change is primary; and emotion is then experienced when the brain reacts to the information received via the body’s nervous system. One patern of arousal->one emotion.(Feel sad because you’re crying)

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38
Q

Cannan-Bard Theory

A

Perception of emotion->Conscious emotion and physiological changes. Emotional stimulus causes limbic system to arouse the ANS; create behavior and emotion simultaneously. Physiological response and emotional feeling are separate: expression from hypothalamus; feeling from thalamus.

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39
Q

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

A

Event->arousal->Reasoning/cognitive labels->Emotion. Experience arousal, look around, find a reason for it, feel emotion. Arousal in a mob=anger, arousal at concert=joy

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40
Q

Evolutionary Theory of Emotion

A

emotions evolved because they were adaptive and allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce

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41
Q

Appraisal of stress

A

Stage 1: appraisal of situation. Stage 2: appraisal of self-ability to cope with stressor.

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42
Q

Serotonin

A

obsessions; compulsions; memory

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43
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

Causes cortisol release

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44
Q

Components of attitude

A

Affective/emotional; cognitive; behavioral

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45
Q

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

A

you are more like to agree to requests if you have agreed to an easier one first (ex. can I use your car to go to the store? Actually can I use it for the weekend?)

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46
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes that is solved by reducing the importance of an existing attitude via a) acquiring new information; b) changing an attitude; c) ignoring conflicting information; or d) add new cognition

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47
Q

Freud (Psychoanalytic) theory of personality: Oral focus

A

Birth-1 year. cause orally aggressive (biting things) or orally passive behavior (smoking; kissing)

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48
Q

Freud (Psychoanalytic) theory of personality: Anal focus

A

1-3 years. cause anal retentive (obsessively neat) or anal expulsive (excessively disorganized/defiant)

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49
Q

Freud (Psychoanalytic) theory of personality: Genital focus

A

Puberty on: maturation of sexual interest

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50
Q

Freud (Psychoanalytic) theory of personality: Latent

A

6-puberty. dormant sexual feelings that can cause sexual unfulfillment -identification of gender identity

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51
Q

Freud (Psychoanalytic) theory of personality: Phallic

A

Pleasure focus on genitals coping with incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipus Complex)

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52
Q

Psychoanalytic theory of personality

A

Id, ego, superego. ‘Slaves to the subconscious’

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53
Q

Humanistic theory of personality

A

people are responsible for their own free will /urges and are motivated to fulfill their own potential (as opposed to others). Does not reduce people to behaviors and drives. Focus on present.Maslow and Rogers.

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54
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

Physiological > Safety > Belongingness > Esteem > Self-actualization

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55
Q

Trait theory of personality

A

Personality is interworking of various traits. Cardinal traits- dominate throughout life; rare and develop late (ex. Narcissism). Central traits- basic foundations of personality (ex. honest; shy; anxious). Secondary traits- attitudes under specific circumstances (ex. Shy in crowds)

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56
Q

Social-cognitive perspective on personality

A

learning and replicating the actions of others determines behavior. People choose environments based on personality, and personality dictates how they will interact with environment. Locus of control is important idea.Bandura bobo doll experiment, modeling. Behavior, cognition and situational factors all influence each other to produce personality.

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57
Q

Behaviorist perspective on personality

A

personality is learned based on complex interactions between individual and environment; only observable/measurable behavior. Heavily based on operant and classical conditioning.Good behavior earns tokens

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58
Q

Biological perspective of personality

A

Biological factors determine behavior. Closely linked with trait theory

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59
Q

Drive

A

excitatory state produced by homeostatic disturbance (ex. the disturbance of thirst drives one to drink)

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60
Q

Theory of motivation: Drive-reduction theory

A

internal physiological need to minimize drive. Primary drives are innate, secondary drives (money) conditioned:

  • Drive essential
  • Stimuli and responses detected
  • Response made
  • Need satisfied-drive reduced
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61
Q

Theory of motivation: Incentive theory

A

people are driven by external positive incentives and driven away by external negative incentives (ex. Chasing money, drinking alcohol)

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62
Q

Theory of motivation: Need-based theory

A

motivation is based on satisfying various basic (ex. food/sex) to complex (ex. morality; self-esteem) needs

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63
Q

Theory of motivation: Cognitive theory

A

we are motivated through active cognitive processing of various needs (ex. A balance of study time to get grades but not be a nerd)

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64
Q

Sensitization

A

repeated stimulus causes response amplification (ex. getting irritated by someone saying like too many times)

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65
Q

Pathways to persuasion

A

Central (actual message) and peripheral (background clues)

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66
Q

Social facilitation

A

tendency for people to perform better when in presence of others (ex. running faster against competitors than against the clock)

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67
Q

Deindividuation

A

decreased self-evaluation when others have same attitudes/behaviors (ex. members of lynch mob have decreased moral compass)

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68
Q

Bystander effect

A

people don’t help a victim when others are present because of a diffusion of their own responsibility (ex. someone else can give $$ to homeless)

69
Q

Social loafing

A

people deliberately exerting less effort when they work in a group (ex. not pulling 100% in a tug of war)

70
Q

Social control

A

mechanism to regulate behavior and attain conformity (like peer pressure)

71
Q

Group polarization

A

groups make more extreme decisions than an individual would have (ex. KKK members are more racist when together than apart)

72
Q

Groupthink

A

disagreeing groups have a desire for harmony and will pursue this harmony until everyone agrees (ex. 12 angry men)

73
Q

Anomie

A

social instability due to society not providing norms

74
Q

Folkways; mores; taboos

A

Routine/casual norms; strict moral behaviors; taboos that invoke disgust

75
Q

Ritualism

A

Rejects cultural goals but believes in norm methods to achieve them (ex. farmer works hard but does not care for money)

76
Q

Retreatism

A

The rejection of culturally prescribed goals and the conventional means for attaining them. Retreatism involves rejecting both the goals and the means. For example, one might just drop out of society, giving up on everything. Rebellion also involves rejecting goals and means, but rebellion, as opposed to retreatism, which entails finding new goals and new means to obtain them,/rɪˈtritɪzəm/ ri-tree-tiz-uhm
(noun) Sociology.
the rejection of culturally prescribed goals and the conventional means for attaining them. It could lead to asocialization, depersonalization, social alienation, Anomie (normslessness), psychic dysfunctions, which could on the other hand result in criminal intentions and/or deeds (because of social deviance due to the aforementioned states) or rebellious attitudes (i.e. pursuit of activities advancing new means and new goals, usually via all means possible).

Aside from disrespect and rejection of the institutionalized means and cultural goals (values) of a society, retreatism could also stem from the institutionalization of individualization and most often from social inequalities.

77
Q

Deviance theory: Differential association

A

deviance motives are learned from interactions with others (ex. robbing is fun and I have never been caught so I’ll do it)

78
Q

Deviance theory: Labeling theory

A

deviance is not inherent but due to the majority labeling the minority (ex. labeling someone a robber will make them act that way)

79
Q

Deviance theory: Strain theory

A

social obstacles prevent people from reaching societal goals so they find other ways (ex. robbing because you don’t have an education)

80
Q

Deviance theory: absolutist approach

A

defiance is inherent in the individual (ex. nature)

81
Q

Deviance theory: interactionist approach

A

defiance is not a real thing; simply a name that a society gives to a very relative behavior (ex. some cultures perform incest)

82
Q

Self-efficacy

A

Confidence in ability to complete tasks

83
Q

Erikson’s theory of identity development

A

every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages based around crises

84
Q

Erikson: 0-2

A
  1. Age 0-2- crisis: trust vs mistrust (ex. can I trust to put this food in my mouth)
85
Q

Erikson: 2-4

A
  1. Age 2-4- crisis: autonomy vs reliance (ex. can I poop on my own)
86
Q

Erikson: 4-5

A
  1. Age 4-5- crisis: initiative vs homeostasis (ex. can I get away not brushing teeth)
87
Q

Erikson: 5-12

A
  1. Age 5-12- crisis: industry vs inferiority (ex. can I make it in the world)
88
Q

Erikson: 13-19

A
  1. Age 13-19- crisis: identity vs not knowing (ex. who am I?)
89
Q

Erikson: 20-39

A
  1. Age 20-39- crisis: intimacy vs isolation (ex. can I love?)
90
Q

Erikson: 40-64

A
  1. Age 40-64- crisis: generativity vs stagnation (ex. can I make life count)
91
Q

Erikson: 65+

A
  1. Age 65-death- crisis: ego integrity vs despair (ex. did I make life count?)
92
Q

Kohlberg theory of moral development

A

differentiates stages bases on how ideals that are held

93
Q

Kohlberg: Preconventional

A

Infancy: we do right things solely to avoid punishment (obedience stage). Pre-school: we do right things for rewards they offer (self-interest stage)

94
Q

Kohlberg: Conventional

A

School age. 1: we do right things to secure peer approval (conformity stage). 2: we do right things to preserve social order (authority and social order)

95
Q

Kohlberg: Postconventional

A

Teens: we do right things for mutual benefit they bring (social contract stage). Adults: do right things b/c they are morally just (universal principles stage)

96
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

placing too much emphasis on the internal factors of attribution theory (ex. the world is a bad place because everyone in it is evil)

97
Q

Aversive vs dominative prejudice

A

Trying not to be prejudiced vs trying to be

98
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

judging another culture based solely on the values of your own (ex. cannibalism is wrong because I was taught that is was)

99
Q

Iron law of bureaucracy

A

People gain power/authority and eventually pursue the goals of the bureaucracy rather than the administrative groups they were assigned to (ex. education unions lobbying for better pay of teachers instead of focusing on teaching the kids

100
Q

Sociology

A

study of social behavior; its origins; development; organization; and institutions

101
Q

Social exchange theory

A

Social change and stability is achieved through negotiated exchanges that come with rewards and punishments (operant conditioning on macro scale)

102
Q

Rational choice theory

A

Social processes are based on rationality (ex. you will make decisions that provide more utility to your livelihood)

103
Q

Functionalism

A

positive view that society is a complex system with many parts working together to promote solidarity and stability (ex. the military)

104
Q

Conflict theory

A

individuals/groups have different amounts of resources and those with more use their power to exploit groups with less

105
Q

Symbolic interactionism

A

Observing interactions between people - micro sociology. Focuses on behavior between individuals. How different people act differently because they may ascribe different meanings. How these meanings can change. How interaction between individuals can lead to societal changes. George Herbert Mead.

106
Q

Social constructionism

A

Society creates social realities and models of the social world primarily though language (ex. a black vs white distinction when we are nearly genetically identical)

107
Q

Teacher expectancy

A

teachers subconsciously treat students differently based on their perception of the students competence hence getting their expected results

108
Q

Malthusian theory

A

population will reach a level too high to support agricultural production and we will be forced to return to subsistence conditions

109
Q

Demographic transition theory

A

as countries become more industrial birth/death rates decrease (deciding if you want children; better healthcare)

110
Q

Racialization

A

ascribing ethnic/racial identities to a group that does not itself identify as such

111
Q

Racial formation theory

A

racialization occurs in an attempt to diminish status of minority groups to gain control over them

112
Q

Relative deprivation

A

lack of resources to sustain a lifestyle that is widely encouraged in the society you are in (ex. not having electronics in the USA)

113
Q

Hyperglobalist perspective on globalization

A

positive perspective; globalization is a new epoch in human history that brings the demise of the nation state

114
Q

Skeptical perspective of globalization

A

negative perspective; globalization is causing fragmentation of economies and third world becoming marginalized (being left out)

115
Q

Transformationalist perspective of globalization

A

the pros/cons of globalization are unclear as of now

116
Q

Social stratification

A

classification of people into groups based on their socioeconomic conditions (ex. you are poor; you are rich; you are different people)

117
Q

Social reproduction

A

transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next (ex. wealthy pass on estates; poor pass on little houses)

118
Q

False consciousness

A

unawareness about the social class/rank you are in

119
Q

Spreading activaton

A

searching through memory in a network-like fashion of nodes associated with other nodes

120
Q

Depth of processing

A

memories stored at different depths; based on quality of processing. Memories based on observations more fragile than deep understanding

121
Q

Serial position effect

A

the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best; and the middle items worst

122
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

responsible for the manipulation and temporary storage of visual and spatial information in working memory

123
Q

Continuity theory

A

older adults try to maintain this continuity of lifestyle by adapting strategies that are connected to their past experiences

124
Q

Proactive interference

A

the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning.

125
Q

Retroactive interference

A

the tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material

126
Q

Heuristic

A

Heuristics are speedy mental shortcuts. Also rules that propose to explain how people make decisions; come to judgments and solve problems when facing complex ones.

127
Q

Latent learning

A

learning not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned

128
Q

Spearman’s idea of general intelligence

A

g factor. People that are smart are smart across the board; on all subjects

129
Q

Thurstone’s idea of primary mental abilities

A

seven different mental abilities include verbal comprehension; reasoning; perceptual speed; numerical ability; word fluency; associative memory; spatial visualization

130
Q

Gardner’s idea of eight intelligences

A

eight skills/abilities valued differently in different cultures: visual-spatial intelligence; verbal-linguistic intelligence; bodily-kinesthetic intelligence; logical-mathematical intelligence; interpersonal intelligence; musical intelligence; intrapersonal intelligence; naturalistic intelligence

131
Q

Galton’s idea of hereditary genius

A

success was due to superior qualities passed down to offspring through heredity

132
Q

Binet’s idea of mental age

A

a test to decide whether children should be placed above or below their age-group in school

133
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

A

only three factors: Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities; Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills; Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.

134
Q

Fluid vs crystallized

A

Fluid intelligence is the capacity to reason and solve novel problems; independent of any knowledge from the past; peaks in early adulthood. Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills; knowledge; and experience; peaks in middle adulthood. Both decline with advanced age

135
Q

Mead’s components of self

A

me is the socialized aspect of the person; and the “I” is the active aspect of the person

136
Q

Freud’s components of self

A

id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized; realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego

137
Q

Sublimation

A

a defense mechanism seeing socially unacceptable impulses or idealizations are unconsciously transformed into socially acceptable drives. E.g.channeling yoursexual urges into a drive for success in business

138
Q

Projection

A

a defense mechanism in which humans defend themselves against their own unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others.

139
Q

Reaction formation

A

defense mechanism in which emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or perceived to be unacceptable are mastered by exaggeration (hypertrophy) of the directly opposing tendency Eg fighting with someone that you are attracted to

140
Q

Regression

A

a defense mechanism leading to the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more [adaptive] way.

141
Q

Displacement

A

Defense mechanism: changing target of emotion while feelings stay the same. Eg being mad at your boss but lashing out at your spouse

142
Q

Cognitive behavioral therapy

A

negative patterns of thought about the self and the world are challenged in order to alter unwanted behavior patterns

143
Q

Cognitive therapy

A

it’s dysfunctional thinking that leads to dysfunctional emotions or behaviors. By changing their thoughts; people can change how they feel and what they do.

144
Q

Freudian/psychoanalytic therapy

A

changing problematic behaviors; feelings; and thoughts by discovering their unconscious meanings and motivations.

145
Q

Behavioral therapy

A

seeks to identify and help change potentially self-destructive or unhealthy behaviors.

146
Q

Humanist therapy

A

rejects the idea of therapists as authorities on their clients’ inner experiences. Instead; therapists help clients change by emphasizing their concern; care and interest. focuses on free will; self-determination and the search for meaning. importance of being aware of the here and now and accepting responsibility for yourself. Focus on present

147
Q

Apparent movement

A

an optical illusion in which a static image appears to be moving due to the cognitive effects of interacting color contrasts and shape position

148
Q

Induced movement

A

illusion of visual perception in which a stationary or a moving object appears to move or to move differently because of other moving objects nearby

149
Q

Movement aftereffect

A

a visual illusion experienced after viewing a moving visual stimulus for a time (tens of milliseconds to minutes) with stationary eyes; and then fixating a stationary stimulus

150
Q

Goffman’s Theory of Dramaturgy

A

Sense of self and self-presentation change depending on the situation (audience, timing), e.g. front stage (interactions with society) vs back stage (private areas of lives, where we are not acting but being true selves)

151
Q

Avoidance response/reinforcement (operant conditioning)

A

a response that prevents an aversivestimulusfrom occurring. a kind of negative reinforcement

152
Q

Escape response

A

A possible reaction to an existing negative stimuli, e.g. rat getting shocked, jumping over barrier to get away, then any concurrent response has been negatively conditioned

153
Q

Attribution theory

A

using information to arrive at casual explanations of eventsInternal- behavior is intrinsic to the person (ex. he cut the line because hes selfish)External- behavior is based on the situation (ex. he cut the line b/c he’s in a rush)

154
Q

Signal detection theory

A

A theory studying and quantifying how we receive information in time of uncertainty; how we separate signal from noise; how we do feature detectionEx- hearing someone in a noisy room, finding a small tumor on an X-ray ​

155
Q

Feature detection

A

the process of separating signal from noise

156
Q

Parallel processing

A

ability of thebrainto simultaneously process incoming stimuli of differing qualityEx. Vision can see object color, shape, distance

157
Q

Game theory

A

Study of decision-making, assuming parties arerational and acting according to their self-interest

158
Q

Inclusive fitness theory

A

An organism improves their own genetic success through altruistic social behavior

159
Q

Optimal arousal theory of motivation

A

People performactions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Performance is worst at extremes, best in the intermediate level. ‘Optimal’ varies depending on task–lower arousaloptimal for highly cognitive tasks, higher arousal optimal for physicaltasks

160
Q

Selye’s general adaptation syndrome

A

Breaks down the three stages of stress response. Stress is only productive if short-term. If stress becomes long-term, causes exhaustion, depletes resources, leads to health problems

161
Q

Approach-approach conflict

A

Stress of choosing between two good things

162
Q

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A

Stress of choosing between two negative options

163
Q

Approach-avoidance conflict

A

Choice is regarding one thing, which may have positive or negative outcomes Eg deciding whether to take a promotion, which would pay more but give you less free time

164
Q

Linguistic relativity

A

the structure of alanguageaffects its speakers’world vieworcognition. (Sapir–Whorf hypothesis). Languagedetermines (or at least influences) thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determinecognitive categories

165
Q

Working memory

A

7±2 items can be held and manipulated at a given time.

166
Q

Chunking

A

Device to increase working memory. Break items into categories, then one category ≈ one item, so you can store 7±2 categories, thus more items overall

167
Q

Role conflict, strain, exit

A

Conflict: difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple rolesStrain: difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of same roleExit: dropping of one identity for another

168
Q

Group sizes

A

Larger groups are more stable, less intimate

Psych/Sosc MCAT (1 decks)

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