PS102 Midterm Flashcards
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
define empiricism
FRACIS BACON
view that all knowledge originates in experiences
define voluntarism
will is the ultimate agency in human behavior
believe behavior is motivated and that attention is focused for explicit purposes
define psychoanalytic theory
believe human mental processes are influenced by the competition between unconscious forces and conscious forces
SIGMUND FREUD
define cognitive psychology
studies mental processes as forms of information processing and the ways in which information is stored and operated in our minds
ULRIC NEISSER
define cross-cultural psychology
the study of what is generally/universally true about human beings regardless of culture
what are the 3 branches of psychology
academic = research/instructions
applied = applying to practical problems
clinical/counselling = abnormal psychology and interventions
what are the 4 shared values of psychology
- theory driven
- empirical
- multilevel
- contextual
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
what are the 2 shared beliefs of sciences
- universe operates according to natural laws
- these laws are discoverable and testable
deductive vs inductive reasoning
deductive = broad basic principles applied to specific situations
inductive = small specific situations to more general truths and principles
define hypothetico-deductive reasoning
scientists begin with an educated guess based on previous research about how the world works and then begin to design small controlled observations to support/invalidate their hypothesis
define pseudo-psychology or pop psychology
argue that psychological principles can provide the answers to all of life’s major questions –> tend to have hidden goals
a form of psychology not based on the scientific method but takes on the appearance of science
define operationalize
to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it
define descriptive research methods
studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest without specifying a casual relationship
define the Hawthorne effect
participants improve or modify their behavior because they are aware they are being observed/studied
not a result of intervention
define double-blind procedures
a study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows what treatment or procedure the participant is receiving
define the three types of correlation
positive = on average scores on two variables increase together
negative = on average scores on one variable increase as scores on another decrease
perfect = two variables are exactly related, low, medium, and high scores on both variables are aways exactly related
define standard deviation
statistical index of how much scores VARY in a group
correlational research vs experimental research
correlational = no manipulation, research measures two variables to test their relationship
experimental = researcher manipulates a variable and compares them (use inferential statistics)
measures of central tendency vs variability
central tendency = a numerical value that represents the center of the distribution
- ie. mean
variability = a numerical value that represents how different the scores within a group are from each other
- ie. standard deviation
define t-tests vs f-tests
t-tests = inferential statistic used for testing the statistical significance of two groups
- if t is big p will be small!
f-tests = inferential statistic used to test the statistical significance of two or more groups
define effect size
the strength of the relationship between two variables
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4
define a cross-sectional design
a research approach that compares groups of different aged people to one another
define longitudinal design
a research approach that follows the same people over a period of time by administering the same tasks or questionnaires and seeing how their responses change
define cohort sequential deign
designed to look at how individuals from different age groups compare to one another and to follow them over time
define maturation
the unfolding of development in a particular sequence and time frame
define epigenetics
changes in gene expression that are independent of DNA sequences of the gene
genotype vs phenotype
genotype = persons genetic inheritance
phenotype = the observable manifestations of a persons genetic inheritance
define codominance
when in a heterozygous combination of alleles both traits are expressed in the offspring
discrete trait vs polygenic trait
discrete = results as the product of a single gene pairing
polygenic = manifests as the result of the contributions of multiple genes
proximodistal vs cephalocaudal pattern
proximodistal = growth and development proceed from the center to the extremities
cephalocaudal = growth and development proceeds from top to bottom
define rooting, grasping, moro and babinski
rooting = touch cheek, infant sucks –> feeing help
grasping = press palm, infant grasps –> infants safety
moro = startle infant, infant flails arms –> helps hold on to caregiver when support is lost
babinski = stroke foot, infants toes spread –> unknown
what are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to JEAN PIAGET
-
sensorimotor = 0-2 y/o, understand world through senses + begin to develop language
- 6-8 months = develop object
permanence
- 6-8 months = develop object
-
preoperational = 2-7 y/o, world is symbolic, mental images/words, pretend play
- egocentric, scale errors, and dont
understand conservation
- egocentric, scale errors, and dont
- concrete operational = 7-11 y/o, can perform basic mental operations, understand conservation + tangible problems but difficulty with abstract problems
- formal operational = 11+ y/o, think logically about concrete + abstract problems, able to form/test hypotheses
assimilation vs accommodation - PIAGET
assimilation = the inclusion of new information or experiences into pre-existing schemes
accommodation = alteration of pre-existing mental framework’s to take in new information
define information processing theory
how children learn, remember, organize, and use information from their environment
study what children CAN do
define violation of expectation
test object permanence
study infants and toddlers heightened reactions to an unexpected event after habituation
define scaffolding
developmental adjustments that adults make to give children the help they need
- not so much that they fail to move
forward
define the zone of proximal development
the gap between what a child can accomplish alone and what they can accomplish with help from others
what are the 4 temperaments (CHESS & THOMAS)
- easy = cheerful, regular routines, open to change
- difficult = irritable, negative reactions to change
- slow to warm up = less active/responsive, withdraw when change occurs
- unique = unique blends of characteristics from above 3 categories
define the 4 attachment styles
- secure = explore with mother and upset when gone, 60%
- anxious/avoidant = unresponsive and indifferent, 15%
- anxious/ambivalent = strong reaction to mother leaving yet mixed emotions when returning, 10%
- disorganized/disoriented = infant is confused and contradictory, 15%
define the q-sort approach
observes of parent-child interactions place descriptions of various attachment behaviors into 9 piles, frequent and infrequent behavior’s separated
provides a fluid estimate of the child’s general attachment patterns
what are the 4 parenting styles
-
authoritative = sensitive to child’s needs, nurturing, encourages autonomy
- high self esteem, cooperative + self
control -
authoritarian = cold, rejecting, demanding
- low self esteem, anxious, aggressive
-
permissive = accepting but overindulgent and inattentive
- impulsive, disobedient, dependent,
low initiative
- impulsive, disobedient, dependent,
-
uninvolved = emotionally detached, depressed, little time/energy
- anxious, poor communication and
anti-social
- anxious, poor communication and
what is KOHLBERG’S stage theory of moral development
1.preconventional = morality center’s on what you can get away with
- conventional = morality centers on avoiding others disapproval and obeying rules
- postconventional* = morality determined by abstract ethical principles
define cellular clock theory
suggests we age because our cells have built in limits on their ability to reproduce
define wear and tear theory
suggests we age because use of our body wears it out
define free radical theory
suggests we age because special negatively charged oxygen molecules become more prevalent in our body as we get older
this destabilizes cellular structures and causes aging
what did DANIEL LEVINSON believe about aging transitions
early life transition –>early adulthood –> middle life transition –> middle adulthood
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
define olfactory
smell
define somatosensory
touch, heat, pain and pressure/damage to skin
define gustatory
taste
define sensory transduction
process of converting a specific form of environmental stimuli to neural impulses
threshold vs absolute threshold vs difference threshold
threshold = the point at which the magnitude/intensity of a stimulus initiates a neural impulse
absolute = the minimal stimulus necessary for detection by an individual 50% of the time
difference = minimal difference between two stimuli necessary for detection of a difference between the two
define signal detection theory
believe the response to a signal depends on an individuals ability to differentiate between the signal and noise and on their response criteria
bottom up vs top down processing
bottom = perception that proceeds by transducing environmental stimuli into neural impulses that move into successively more complex brain regions
top = perception processes led by cognitive processes (ie. memory/expectations)
define the olfactory bulb
the first region where olfactory (smell) information reaches the brain on its way from the nose
ageusia vs hyposmia vs anosmia vs auras
ageusia = inability to taste
hyposmia = reduced ability to smell
anosmia = inability smell
auras = hallucinations involving the sensory system before/during migraines/headaches or seizures
what is Meissner’s Corpuscles
transduce information about sensitive touch and are found in hairless regions of the body
have sensory receptors that convert physical stimuli about sensory touch
define Merkel’s Discs
transduce information about light to moderate pressure on the skin
contains sensory receptors that convert information about light to moderate pressure on the skin
what are Ruffini’s end organs
located deep in the skin and register heavy pressure and movement of joints
contains sensory receptors that respond to heavy pressure and joint movement
what are Pacinian Corpuscles
buried deep in the skin and respond to vibrations and heavy pressure
what is the gate control theory of pain
believe certain patterns of neural activity can close a gate to keep pain information from travelling to parts of the brain where it is perceived
what is familial dysautonomia
the inability to detect pain or temperature as well as the inability to produce tears
define neuropathies
blocks pain sensations arising from the persons extremities
nerve dysfunction
what is the tympanic membrane
the eardrum
sound waves enter the outer ear and deflect the eardrum
what are the ossicles
tiny bones in the ear
malleus, incus, and stapes
what is the oval window
membrane separating the ossicles and inner ear
deflections causes a wave to form in cochlea
define cochlea
fluid filled structure in inner ear
contains hair cells
define basilar membrane
structure in cochlea where hair cells are located
what is frequency theory
different sound frequencies are converted into different rates of action potentials or firing in our auditory nerves
high frequency = more rapid firing
define place theory
differences in sound frequency activate different regions on the basilar membrane
the regions on the basilar membrane sends inputs to the brain which are encoded according to the place along the membrane where the input originated
conductive deafness vs nerve deafness
conductive = a break in the various processes by which sound is transmitted through the inner ear
nerve = results from damage/malformations of the auditory nerve in the brain
what is the retina
specialized sheet of nerves in the back of the eye containing the sensory receptors for vision
define photoreceptors
the sensory receptor cells for vision located in the retina
rods vs cones
rods = photoreceptors responsive to levels of light/dark
cones = photoreceptors responsive to color
what is the optic nerve
bundle of axons of ganglion ells that carries visual information from the eye to the brain
what is the fovea
center of the retina
contains only cones, vision is most clear
what is the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
3 different receptors for color and each type of receptor responds to a different range of wavelengths of light
one for yellow/red
one for green
one for blue/purple
define opponent process theory
color pairs work to inhibit one another in the perception of color
result of activity in the lateral geniculate nucleus (in the thalamus)
what is prosopagnosia
specific kind of visual agnosia
cant recognize faces due to damage to parts of the ‘what’ pathways
what is hemi-neglect
damage to the ‘where’ pathways
unable to see one side of the visual field
binocular vs monocular
monocular = visual clues about depth and distance that can be perceived using information from only one eye
binocular = requires both eyes
interposition vs motion parallax
interposition = an object blocks part of another from our view, see the blocked object as farther away
motion = requires that the observer be moving, the relative movement of objects that are stationary against their background gives us an idea about their relative distance
what is retinal disparity
the slight difference in images processed by the retinas of each eye
define perceptual constancies
top-down tendency to view objects as unchanging, despite shifts in environmental stimuli we receive
what is strabismus vs amblyopia
strabismus = misalignment of eyes, can result in visual loss –> born or caused
amblyopia = partial/complete loss of vison due to abnormal development of brains visual cortex in infancy
- one eye focuses better than the other
kinesthetic sense vs vestibular sense
kinesthetic = receptors in cell muscles respond if squeezed and shape is changed by movement, tell us whether we are still pr moving in a direction without having to look
vestibular = movement of the fluid in our inner ears detected by hair cells that gets shifted when our inner ear fluid moves
- provides information about our body position, matches visual info provided by our eyes
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
encoding vs storage vs retrieval
encoding = the recording of information in our brain
storage = retention of information for later use
retrieval =recovery of information when we need it later
what is the information processing model
believes information must pass through 3 stages of mental functioning to become firmly planted into memory
- sensory memory
- working memory
- long term memory
define sensory memory
brains retaining a sensory image - less than a second - when first confronted with a stimulus
help keep items we have experienced briefly alive a bit longer
has a large capacity but anything not transferred is lost
define iconic memory vs echoic memory
visual sensory memory - small copy of the visual event we just saw
auditory system that holds information for a short time
short term vs working memory
short = a storage location where stimuli could be held for a brief period of time
- Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store model of
memory
- holds 5-9 items at once
working = different systems responsible for processing the different kinds of information an individual is consciously working on - keeps it available for immediate access
- Baddeley and Hitch
- holds 5-9 items at once
explain the 3 subsystems of working memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch
- central executive = supervisory system,
allocating/prioritizing resource’s and info - phonological loop = process spoken/written info (little voice)
-visuospatial sketchpad = keeps track of
images and spatial locations for
navigation (inner eye) - episodic buffer = links together information from other parts of working memory and creates links to time/order and long-term memory
define central executive function
way of maintaining attention, refers to processing information as it relates to goal directed behavior
define executive attention
responsible for overseeing the maintenance of goals and controls interference when a person is engaged in complex cognitive tasks
define long term memory
the system that can retain a seemingly unlimited number of pieces of information for an indefinite period of time
define memory stores
storing information until something causes a disruption or loss of the memory
define parallel distributed processing (PDP) OR connectionist model
believes new information immediately joins other previously encountered and relevant information to help form/grow networks of information
memory stored in a network of associations through our brain
define rehearsal
conscious repetition of information in an attempt to make sure the information is encoded
define spaced practice effect vs massed practice
spaced = facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time
- ie. studying material weekly and reviewing
closer to an exam
massed = cramming
define semantic code
cognitive representation of information or an event based on the meaning of the information
ie. link new things we learn to things we have already memorized based on shared meaning
define mnemonic devices
technique used to enhance the meaningfulness of information as a way of making them more memorable
define schemas
knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases
define memory span
maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order
typically 5-9
define chunking
grouping bits of information together to enhance ability to hold that information in working memory
explicit vs implicit memory
explicit = memory that can be consciously brought to mind (ie. middle name)
implicit = memory that a person is not aware of (ie. learned motor behaviors, skills, and habits)
semantic memory vs episodic memory
semantic = memory of general knowledge of the world
episodic = memory of personal events of episodes from their life
define the levels of processing model
process information to shallow or deeper depths
information can be superficially processed or have symbolic significance
greater depth = more likely to be recalled later
primacy vs recency effect
primacy = better at recalling first section of a list than middle/end due to them being encoded into working memory
recency = items at the end of a list are still in working memory and have less interference by other words causing them to be better recalled
define priming
activation of one piece of information, which in turn leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory
like linking
recognition vs recall tasks
recognition = asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before
recall = asked to produce information using no or few retrieval cues
define context (in terms of memory)
the og location where you first learned a concept/idea
makes it more likely to be able to recall information late when in the same location you learned it in
what is the encoding specificity principle
a theoretical framework
believes memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding
define state dependent memory
memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place
define flashbulb memories
detailed and near permanent memories of an emotionally significant event or the circumstance’s surrounding when we learned of the event
decay theory cs interference theory
decay = suggests memories fade due to neglect/failure to access them over long periods of time
interference = forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before/after they take information in
proactive interference vs retroactive interference
pro = competing information that is learned before the forgotten material
- new info interferes with old info
retro = learning of new information that disrupts access to previously recalled information
- old info interferes with new info
define source misattribution
remembering information but not the source causing us to remember information from unreliable sources as true
define memory consolidation
the process by which memories stabilize in the brain
define potentiation
synchronous networks of cells firing together
define long term potentiation (LTP)
repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation
define prospective vs retrospective memory
pro = ability to remember content in the future
retro = ability to remember content from the past
define amnestic disorders
organic disorders (occurred organically) in which memory loss is the primary symptom
define retrograde amnesia vs anterograde amnesia
retro = inability to remember things that occurred before an organic event
anterior = ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
define neurofibrillary tangles
twisted protein fibers found within cells of the hippocampus and certain other brain areas
define senile plaques
sphere-shaped deposits of a protein that form in the spaces between cells in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and certain other brain regions and some blood vessels
organic disorders vs dissociative disorders
organic = physical causes of memory impairment is identified
dissociative = disruption in memory lack a clear physical cause
