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Programming Fundamentals > Prologue: Hardware Basics > Flashcards

Prologue: Hardware Basics Flashcards

1
Q

What does the acronym “CPU” stand for?

A

Central Processing Unit.

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2
Q

What is the function of an integrated heat spreader in a CPU?

A

It absorbs and dissipates the heat created by the chip.

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3
Q

What is another name for an integrated circuit board in a CPU?

A

A die.

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4
Q

Name the basic components of a CPU.

A

The basic components of a CPU are as follows.

  • The control unit (CU)
  • The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
  • The memory address register (MAR)
  • The memory data register (MDR)
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5
Q

What is the die of a CPU comprised of?

A

A lot of transistors (8-10 billion approx).

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6
Q

What are the transistors in a CPU connected with?

A

Microscopic metal wires with vias rising vertically.

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7
Q

What function does cache memory serve in a CPU?

A

Cache memory stores frequently used instructions and data that the CPU needs to function properly. It is located next to the CPU to enhance processing speed.

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8
Q

What is the purpose of a memory controller in a CPU?

A

The memory controller communicates with the DRAM.

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9
Q

What is the motherboard?

A

A motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) that contains various ports, slots, headers, connectors, and microchips.

The motherboard serves as a signal transmitter between different hardware, just like your body’s nervous system.

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10
Q

What is the function of a chipset in a motherboard?

A

A computer’s chipset is an integrated chip that serves to communicate between the CPU, RAM, storage media, and other peripherals.

The chipset determines how many high-speed components (USB connections) your computer is able to handle at any given time.

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11
Q

How does the chipset on a motherboard communicate with the CPU?

A

It directly connects to the system agent (platform I/O) via a data bus.

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12
Q

How much voltage does a CPU traditionally require to run properly?

A

~ 1.3 volts

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13
Q

What component of the motherboard regulates the voltage received from the power supply?

A

The Voltage Regulator Module (VRM).

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14
Q

What component of a computer draws heat away from the CPU?

A

A CPU cooler.

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15
Q

What does the acronym “PSU” stand for, and what is its function?

A

The Power Supply Unit distributes power throughout the computer.

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16
Q

What is the function of the primary section of a PSU?

A

The primary section of a PSU is primarily comprised of a transformer, which steps down the voltage received from the grid (120V - 240V) to a lower voltage that the computer can use.

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17
Q

What does the acronym “GPU” stand for?

A

Graphics Processing Unit

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18
Q

Does the GPU function in a similar way to the CPU? Are there any differences?

A

Both the CPU and GPU consist of multiple cores that execute instructions.

But the difference between the cores of a CPU and a GPU is as follows

  • The integrated chip of a GPU cannot perform complicated calculations that may be required by some programs, but it can perform simple arithmetic, such as determining the position and color of a pixel, rather quickly.
  • The CPU, what is lacks in core count, it makes up for in its ability to perform extremely advanced calculations (relatively speaking) that the GPU may find hard if not impossible.
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19
Q

How does a CPU communicate with RAM?

A

Through memory channels running inside the motherboard.

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20
Q

What components does a RAM module consist of?

A

A DRAM stick traditionally consists of 8 memory chips that contain 32 memory banks each.

Each memory bank is 8192 columns wide, and 65535 rows tall.

This configuration allows the DRAM module to store up to 16GB of data temporarily.

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21
Q

What electrical device does RAM use to store data?

A

A configuration of capacitors and transistors dubbed 1T1C.

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22
Q

What does the acronym “SSD” stand for?

A

Solid State Drive.

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23
Q

What components does a SSD consist of? How does it function?

A

At a microscopic level, SSDs are comprised of millions of tiny NAND arrays that are stacked on top of each other.

Each NAND array is 32,000 - 64,000 rows wide and columns tall. Each NAND array has between 100-200 layers.

Each cell in a NAND array contains a charge trap, which stores up to 3 bits of data

This explains why SSDs can store terabytes worth of data, albeit at a much slower transmission speed than DRAM.

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24
Q

What does the acronym “HDD” stand for?

A

Hard Disk Drive.

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25
Q

Describe the function of a HDD.

A

A magnetic disk sits upon a rotating spindle turning at the rate of thousands of revolutions per minute.

A magnetic read/write head hovers over the spinning disk to access one of 500,000 data streams.

Each small cell in a track represents a bit by being polarized towards either pole.

The read head detects the change in the polarity of the spinning disk at one particular cell.

The write head changes the polarity of a cell in the spinning disk to represent either a 1 or a 0.

HDDs are much slower than SSDs, but they are far cheaper than their successors mainly due to the development of more cost-effective production methods.

26
Q

Describe the function of a keyboard

A

A keyboard consists of eight critical parts.

A rubber membrane pad sits atop two plastic sheets with integrated circuitry inside that are separated using insulation with holes in it.

The microprocessor supplies 3.0 V to the bottom sheet through multiple channels, and constantly monitors the top sheet for incoming voltage through multiple channels.

Upon the press of a key, the rubber membrane pad makes contact with the top plastic sheet, which makes contact with the bottom plastic sheet through the holes in the insulation, thus completing a circuit. The microprocessor can deduce which key was pressed depending on which channel lights up

Detailed explanation:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-NM1xSSzHQ

27
Q

Describe a keyboard matrix.

A

It is a design used in most computer keyboards in which the key switches are connected by a grid of wires.

The rows and columns of the grid are isolated from each other, unless forced into contact by a key press.

28
Q

Assume that a keyboard is constantly supplying 3.0 V to one sheet.

How will it differentiate a key from all the other keys in the same row if pressed?

A

There exist two possible solutions.

One solution would be to constantly cycle 3 volts through each column of the matrix, and when a key is pressed, the keyboard will know exactly which cell of the matrix was activated since only one column is supplied with electricity at a time.

Another solution would be to activate the matrix only when a key is pressed, which is when the matrix is supplied with a charge. The microcontroller would then cycle through each column by turning it off. The cycle that breaks the circuit is the column number of the key. The microprocessor already knows the row number.

The latter of the solutions is a much more energy efficient one.

29
Q

List the components of a basic optical mouse.

A

An optical mouse is typically comprised of the following components.

  • A pair of switches to signal a click.
  • A light emitting diode (LED).
  • An optical sensor.
  • A microchip that has a Cross-correlation algorithm (CCA stored within.
  • A scroll wheel.
30
Q

How many pictures does the optical sensor of a mouse capture in one second; what is the technical term for it.

A

Between 4,000 and 17,000 pictures per second, referred to as frame rate.

31
Q

Why does the LED in a mouse shine on the surface at a shallow angle?

A

To highlight the peaks, and darken the troughs of the rough surface, so the mouse can extrapolate its position on the surface.

32
Q

What is the cross-correlation algorithm in a mouse do?

A

The algorithm compares two images taken by the optical sensor of the mouse to determine how far it has moved in any given direction.

33
Q

What is the resolution of the image sensor in a mouse?

A

Between 18 x 18 and 40 x 40 pixels.

34
Q

Define the polling rate of a mouse. What unit is used to traditionally measure it?

A

Between 100 - 1000 times per second, measured in Hz.

35
Q

Are the images taken by the optical sensor of a mouse saved anywhere?

A

No.

36
Q

What does the acronym “DPI” stand for?

A

Dots Per Inch.

37
Q

How does the optical sensor of a mouse scale its native dpi to higher or lower DPIs

A

Bilateral or Bicubic interpolation.

38
Q

How much faster is RAM compared to modern SSD

A

about 3000 times faster

39
Q

What is prefetching?

A

It is the process of moving data from permanent storage (SSD) to working memory (RAM)

40
Q

What is the difference between DRAM and VRAM found in GPUs?

A
  • VRAM modules have a larger bandwidth compared to DRAM memory chips.
  • VRAM modules can also read and write simultaneously, while DRAM modules can only perform one operation at a time.
  • VRAM modules have a lower frequency compared to DRAM modules.
41
Q

What is bandwidth?

A

Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given path.

42
Q

State an alternate name given to DRAM modules.

A

Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM).

43
Q

How many DIMM slots share one memory channel.

A

2 DIMM slots share one memory channel.

There are 4 total DIMM slots on each motherboard.

44
Q

Whats the bandwidth of the memory channels that run between the DRAM and the CPU?

A

32 bits at any given time.

45
Q

Which component of the CPU manages data transfer between an SSD and DRAM?

A

The M.2/SATA SSD interface on a CPU combined with the memory controller interface.

46
Q

How many wires in the memory channel on a motherboard are responsible for handling addresses?

A

21 wires, all of which are shared between the two memory channels.

47
Q

How many bits can each memory chip inside a DRAM module read/write at a time?

A

8 bits.

48
Q

What component of a DRAM module is tasked with processing the energy supplied by the motherboard?

A

The Power Management Chips (PMC)

49
Q

Into how many groups are the memory banks divided in a single memory chip.

A

Into eight groups of four.

50
Q

How is a group of eight memory cells addressed in a DRAM module?

A

Using a 31-bit address that is encoded with the following information.

  • The first three bits specify the bank group to be addressed.
  • The next two bits specify the particular bank within the group.
  • The next 16 bits are used to identify the row.
  • The last 10 bits are used to identify the group of 8 columns that need to be written to/read from.

This 31-bit address can be split into two modules.

  • Row Address Strobe (RAS), which carries the following
    The bank group address
The bank address
The row address
  • Column Address Strobe (CAS) carries only the column address.

Separating the 32-bit address is more efficient when used in tandem with the concept of Row Hits.

51
Q

Describe the components of a 1T1C capacitor.

A

A 1T1C Capacitor is composed of three very simple elements.

  • At the heart of the 1T1C capacitor is a trench style capacitor that stores 1.0V and 0V to store binary data.
  • A transistor that allows the charge stored in the capacitor to be altered (written) and measured (read).
  • A set of wires that arranged in a grid pattern. The rows do not make any contact with the columns.
52
Q

Explain the difference between the wordline and bitline wires on a 1T1C capacitor.

A

The wordline wires are connected to the transistor and allow the transistor to become active once a small amount of charge has been applied to them.

When the transistor is switched on, the bitline wires can read from/write to that specific memory cell.

The bitline wires run along the columns of a memory bank.

The wordline wires run across the rows of a memory bank.

53
Q

What does 1T1C stand for?

A

1 Transistor 1 Capacitor

54
Q

What component of a memory bank receives the 16-bit row code and deciphers it?

A

The row decoder.

55
Q

What component of a memory bank receives the 10-bit column code and deciphers it?

A

The column multiplexer.

56
Q

What is the function of the sense amplifier?

A

The sense amplifier is attached to the end of each bitline and connects to the column multiplexer.

The sense amplifier helps during the reading and refreshing processes in a DRAM memory bank.

While a specific set of bitlines is pre-charged to 0.5 volts, the sense amplifier detects any further change in voltage in the bitlines and amplifies the signal for the column multiplexer to process.

57
Q

Summarize how data is read from a DRAM memory bank.

A

The steps required to read from a DRAM memory bank are as follows.

  • The CPU sends a read command along with the 31-bit memory address string to the DRAM module via the memory channels.
  • The DRAM memory bank that the data will be extracted from will be completely isolated i.e. all wordlines will have 0 charge.
  • All bitlines are pre-charged with a voltage of 0.5 volts.
  • The row decoder interprets the row code and activates the appropriate wordline by supplying it with charge, which opens the transistors, allowing for charge to flow into the bitlines.
  • The sense amplifier detects whether the memory cell in question contains a 1 or a 0.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 1, the voltage in the bitline will rise; the sense amplifier will then raise the voltage in the bitline back to 1.0V to retain the stored data.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 0, the voltage in the bitline will go down; the sense amplifier will then lower the voltage in the bitline back to 0V to retain the stored data.
  • The sense amplifier will then send this data to the read driver, which will in turn transmit it to the CPU.
58
Q

Summarize how data is written onto a DRAM memory bank.

A

The steps required to write to a DRAM memory bank are as follows.

  • The CPU sends a write command along with the 31-bit memory address string to the DRAM module via the memory channels.
  • The DRAM memory bank that the data will be extracted from will be completely isolated i.e. all wordlines will have 0 charge.
  • All bitlines are pre-charged with a voltage of 0.5 volts.
  • The row decoder interprets the row code and activates the appropriate wordline by supplying it with charge, which opens the transistors, allowing for charge to flow into the bitlines.
  • The sense amplifier detects whether the memory cell in question contains a 1 or a 0.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 1, the voltage in the bitline will rise; the sense amplifier will then raise the voltage in the bitline back to 1.0V to retain the stored data.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 0, the voltage in the bitline will go down; the sense amplifier will then lower the voltage in the bitline back to 0V to retain the stored data.
  • The sense amplifier will then send the 8 bits to the write driver, which will over-ride the sense amplifier and charge the capacitors according to the write instruction received from the CPU.
59
Q

How much charge is stored in a 1T1C capacitor to signal a “1” in binary?

A

1.1V is required to store a binary “1” in a 1T1C capacitor. However, the capacitor is usually charged up to 1.4V since charge tends to leak out.

60
Q

Summarize how data is refreshed in a DRAM memory bank.

A
  • All wordlines are isolated.
  • All bitlines are pre-charged with a voltage of 0.5 volts.
  • A singular row out of the 65,536 rows contained in the memory banks is opened.
  • The sense amplifier detects whether the memory cell in question contains a 1 or a 0.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 1, the voltage in the bitline will rise; the sense amplifier will then raise the voltage in the bitline back to 1.0V to retain the stored data.
  • If the bit stored in the memory cell is a 0, the voltage in the bitline will go down; the sense amplifier will then lower the voltage in the bitline back to 0V to retain the stored data.
  • This process is repeated until all 65,536 rows have been refreshed and takes about 3ms to perform.
  • The refresh operation occurs once every 64ms.

Programming Fundamentals (4 decks)

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