Progressivism and Imperialism, the USA 1890-1912 Flashcards
what was the populist party, when was it formed and who supported it?
party for the people (especially farmers who felt they did not benefit from the growth)
Formed July 1982 in Omaha in an alliance of silver and farming interests to fight the traditional Democrat and Republican candidates. James Weaver got 1 million votes.
why did the issue of silver cause the emergence of populism?
traditionally based on the gold standard (value of money based on the amount of a nation’s gold reserves). Coinage had to be made from it and paper had to be convertible to gold. Bimetalists believed silver should also be used to produce coins. World gold production had fallen and silver production had increased after it was discovered in some Rocky Mountain states ($150,000 1860 to $57 million 1890). Pressure led to the Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1890 meaning the government would buy 4.5 million ounces of silver every month to use in coinage production. Conservatives hated this - undermined the economy and isolated the US from Europe and government intervention so this was removed in 1896 by Cleveland. Caused anger, especially in the west.
why did agricultural discontent cause the emergence of the populist party?
farmers angry due to falling prices (especially about wheat and cotton - 1860 wheat $1.60 per bushel fell to $0.60 by 1890, cotton $0.30 to $0.06). High tariffs on foreign goods meant US agricultural products were not bought and faced more competition for European markets from Australia, Russia, Canada. Harvests deteriorated in the late 1880s due to poor weather conditions.
what were the main aims of the populist party?
- Regulation of railways (especially freight rates) that they felt were too high.
More government regulation of farm prices.
Graduated income tax that would take away dependence of tariffs as the main source of government income. Ensure the rich are taxed more heavily and encourage more exports (for farmers).
Direct election of senators to ensure all citizens would be able to choose 2 for each state who could go to Congress and represent them.
Maximum 8-hour working day
Alter basis of currency, which was traditionally based on gold. Wanted bimetallism - silver coinage. Remove gold standard - the value of money is based on the amount of the nation’s gold reserves.
who was candidate for the populist party in the 1896 election?
Bryan was elected as the candidate for the Populists. He was a bimetalist and supporter of farming and working rights.
who was the republican candidate in this election and how did he win?
William McKinley was the Republican candidate. He was a popular Governer of Ohio who had a lot of support from the working class as he wanted high tariffs.
Dirty tricks were used. Mark Hanna (businessman) spent $3 million supporting the Republicans and smeared Bryan’s reputation. He sent 1500 speakers into areas where voters seemed undecided and used campaign literature. Most of the national newspapers (NY Times) supported him.
why did bryan lose?
traditional methods - travelled over 28,000km and gave 600 speeches. Unable to win a single state in the north-east where workers feared silver. Economy was in upswing.
what were the successes of the populist movement?
Some link between Populists and Progressives of 1900-12 (they adopted many of their aims).
Between 1891 and 1902 45 members of the party served in Congress as well as other roles.
what were the weaknesses of the populist movement?
Link only reactionary as Progressives feared popular democracy and most opposed it.
Some see them as forward looking liberal reformers, others reactionaries trying to recapture a utopian past based on farming.
Never recovered from the 1896 election, by 1900 membership had fallen and activists had retired.
what was progressivism?
Loose grouping of many individuals and organisations, with no easily identifiable leaders and no clear set of aims e.g. Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson.
In 1913 De Witt published the ‘Reflections on Progressivism’. He thought the movement was concerned with the regulation of big business, political reform and social reform.
Chambers defined it as interventionism - direct intervention at state and federal could bring about improvements to society.
Developed in different ways - first political reform and the regulation of working hours through votes for women/major constitutional changes. Amendments to the constitution, radical reforms and changes to the role of the federal government.
how did economic problems cause the rise of progressivism?
1893 recession - high unemployment in industrial cities. 12% for the rest of the 90s.
Businesses cut wages for profits = fall in living standards.
Many banks collapsed - people lost savings.
Agriculture declined due to falling prices - small farms could not compete.
how did social problems cause the rise of progressivism?
Many lived in poverty - bad living conditions/overcrowding/no sewage disposal.
Poor working conditions (72 hour working week). No welfare system.
how did a need for regulation and reform cause the rise of progressivism?
Dissatisfaction with 2 parties. Democrats - too Conservative, Rep only for banks and businesses. Opposed to parties (seen as businesses/machines).
Threatened to establish monopolies. People increasingly hostile to individuals (Rockerfeller). Growing demand for gov regulation (but could not agree on how).
how did the media influence the rise of progressivism?
Increase in newspapers/magazines. Collier’s magazines 1 million sold. Exposed corruption. Muckraker articles - Ida Tosel ete.
Fear of growth of socialism/radicalism/revolution (especially among the middle class).
Trade unions grew - more strike support (violent). 1892 Steel Worker Strike Pittsburgh.
what were the political aims of the progressive party?
Changes to the constitution such as women’s votes/senators more accountable by making them individually elected.
Greater role for federal government to regulate businesses
Radical reform of management of towns/cities away from corrupt officials. Open election system.
Changes to parties that seemed to be dominated by few businesses who controlled elections.
Wanted primary education.
what were the economic aims of the progressive party?
Wanted a greater gov role - more control of banks, insurance and stock market.
Employers recognised trade unions, regulated work hours and created injury compensation
Insurance scheme for unemployed/sickness/old age.
Protection against adulterated food
Change currency and introduce silver coinage (raise farmer prices/reduce business power).
what were the social aims of the progressive party?
Female emancipation
1890 NA Suffrage Association
Shocked at poor conditions/poverty and wanted the gov to provide safety net/state funded welfare benefits.
Abolition of the manufacture and sale of alcohol. 1893 Anti-Saloon League founded for prohibition.
Help African Americans who were treated as second class citizens.
how did t roosevelt become president and what was his legacy?
McKinley was murdered in 1901. Some see him as a reactionary who gave light to the Progressive movement but others say he was too cautious/too radical.
what did roosevelt do for anti-trust measures?
Wanted to make the Sherman Anti-Trust Act more effective. He commanded Knox to start proceedings against the Northern Securities Company (a vast holding company which controlled several railroads). This involved taking on robber barons such as Morgan and Rockefeller. The Supreme Court decided that the company was illegal and dissolved it. Roosevelt then produced 44 prosecutions.
1903 Department of Commerce and Labour Act. Given power to collect data from any business that dealt with interstate commerce. He put pressure on people to get legislation passed.
1906 Hepburn Act gave a federal government commission the power to inspect books of railroad companies and to lay down minimum rates.
what did roosevelt do for labour relations?
He was prepared to intervene in industrial disputes e.g. anthracite coal strike 1902. Employers had locked out miners who went on strike for better wages and an 8 hour day. He told employers unless they agreed he would send in troops. Employers raised wages and gave a 9 hour day. He became popular among workers but employers just raised prices.
what did roosevelt do for conservation?
First president to realise resources were finite. 150 million acres of forest were to be placed on federal reserves and laws concerning grazing, mining and lumbering were used.
1908 National Conservation Conference - led to many states creating commissions to look after the environment. He was seen to be supporting the people against mining, timber and oil interests.
1906 Pure Food and Drug Act as well as meat inspection.
why was roosevelt not able to pass more more reform than he did?
lack of support in Congress and there was a growing divide within his own party.
what were the achievements of Taft’s presidency 1909-12?
He did continue Roosevelt’s ant-trust policies. Initiated 80 anti-trust suits under the Sherman Act.
Introduced an 8 hour working day for government employees and mine safety legislation.
Gave power to the Interstate Commission to set railroad rates, introduced federal income tax and corporation tax which later covered increased government spending.
Brought in the direct election of senators by people rather than legislators.
what were the limitations of Taft’s presidency 1909-12?
He was concerned about the overuse of presidential authority and respected the right of Congress to oppose him and wanted to act within the Constitution.
He lacked political skills and failed to handle the Progressive-conservative divisions among Rps. He lost much support when he sacked Pinchot (conservationist).
Taft was conservative in his tariff views 1909 Payne-Aldrich Act which did little to lower tariffs. Progressive Rps expected him to veto this but he signed and defended it.
Concerns over his reluctance to do more and Roosevelt became his opposition - New Nationalism stated the importance of social and federal reform for greater intervention.
Roosevelt claimed the Rp no longer supported the people so fomed the Progressive party. This split the Rps and contributed to their defeat in the 1912 election.
what were the effects of industrial growth on america 1890-1912?
Industry continued to expand (especially oil and steel). Iron production rose from 920,000 tonnes 1860 to 10.3 million tonnes 1900. Pittsburg centre of iron industry - 38 steel plants along 42km of river.
Modern oil production began in 1901 with Lucas Well. 70,000 to 110,000 barrels produced per day. ‘Gushes’ were discovered in the southwest. By 1907 Oklahama was the leading producer (25%).
Trusts and monopolies grew. By 1904 the largest 4% of companies produced 57% od all industry. 1898-1902 319 major consolidations were made (Dupont 85% electricity). Carnegie sold to Morgan and became a billion dollar company.
what effect did the 1893 depression have on america?
Sparked a stock market crash that turned into a depression.
Panic began after the Reading Railroad declared bankruptcy. Industrial ‘Black Friday’ followed. 24 businesses failed per day in May.
4 year depression - 15000 companies, 600 banks closed and national unemployment 20%. Soup kitchens were opened. Effects lasted till 1897.
Cleveland was the last president supporting laissez faire attitude - believing it was a natural cycle. He supported the gold standard and opposed many by calling for repeal of the Silver Purchase Act (enough persuaded 1893 and it passed, helping boost confidence and stem unemployment.
Alienated many from the economy/political process. Led to a rise in Progressivism. One response was an upsurge in business consolidation. Poorer people believed they had been ignored and were left to the mercy of trusts.
how did agricultural discontent affect america 1890-1912?
Farmers in the south and west did not share industrial prosperity and objected to the power of bankers and corporations. Saw themselves as independent and self-sufficient but many relied on loans.
Falling prices, higher prices charged for storage and transportation meant less income. Many blamed railroads and bankers.
Joined into Farmers’ Alliances, creating unity for themselves through cooperation and self-respect. Led to Populist Party and Democratic support in the 1896 election.
how did relations with trade unions change 1890-1912?
Labour unions representing different crafts were set up. In 1885 AFL was created to represent these unions speaking on behalf of all members. Tried for better conditions and paid with striking. 1886 1400 strikes including 500,000 members. Employers were generally hostile and would sack strikers. Blackleg labour (strike-breakers) were used.
what was the Pittsburgh steelworkers’ strike of 1892 and what were the effects?
Carnegie’s Homestead Steelworks plant the manager Frick cut wages in 1892 and refused union negotiations. The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers went on strike. Private detectives were used to smuggle in strike-breakers who were attacked by strikers. The militia was called in with rifles. After 5 months the strikers were starving and the union collapsed - major setback.
what happened at the pullman strike 1894 and what were the effects?
first national strike. Paralysed railway system. Cut wages but refused to lower rent for employee houses. American Railway Union (ARU) run by Debs refused to handle any trains carrying Pullman cars. Owners asked Cleveland for support and troops were sent in. rioting followed and 4 were killed. Failed - rents remained. Government hostile to unions. The Omnibus Indictment Act, used against the ARU, permitted the banning of strikes till the 1930s.
what were the effects of immigration in this period?
1860 to 1900 14 million immigrants arrived in the US. There was an all time high between 1901-10.
NY had more Italians than Naples and twice as many Irish as Dublin. 1914 Jewish populations reached 1.4 million in a city of 4.7 million. Immigrants entered NY and headed for cities where they were given cheap labour needed for industrial growth or went west to become farmers.
Chinese and Japanese arrived at San Francisco and by 1890 1/10 were Chinese.
Immigrants were also consumers - a major reason for increased industrialisation in the US. Agencies matched immigrants to jobs so fast many had work within an hour of arrival.
Most assimilated well and formed an unskilled workforce.
Migrants were grateful for jobs, opportunities and a roof. 1900 over 2/3rds of arrivals had existed at below subsistence level in the last 20 years.
Some were shocked - expected to find streets paved with gold.
Hard to settle - especially for those moving from a peasant outdoor life to a disciplined, machine life.
Low wages meant wives and children had to work - child labour became a significant issue.
what were reactions to immigration in this period?
Many were welcomed by employers as cheap and willing labour.
They were an easy target for Americans who were fearful and resentful about the rapid changes caused by industrialisation. They were often used as strike-breakers, they contributed to overcrowding and increased racial and ethnic conflict - it was easy to see these and un-American.
Some argued immigrants from southern and eastern Europe did not assimilate into US culture as easily as from northern areas and brought dangerous political ideas (socialism and anarchism).
1877 American Protective Association was set up to try and put pressure on the government to limit immigration. WASP traditions were being ‘undermined’. Anti-immigration forces had limited success before WWI although the Chinese Exclusion Act and Japanese immigration (1908) were implemented.
what legal changes occured to prevent development of AA rights at this time?
The majority of AA lived in poverty.
1887 Florida Railroads introduced segregated carriages and 7 more companies followed. This covered more public places.
Plessy vs Ferguson 1896 - Plessy challenged Louisiana state law which required segregated carriages. He refused to leave the ‘white’ carriage and was arrested. He said his rights under the 14th amendment were being violated. It was taken to the supreme court. ⅞ judged ruled it was legal as long as it was ‘separate but equal’. Disaster - equal could be interpretated.
1899 Cumming vs Board of Education - extended separate but equal to shcools allowing for under-funded and poor quality AA schools.
what was happening to voting rights for AAs at this time?
Many southern states did not want AA to exercise their right to vote.
Georgia introduced a poll tax of $2 and many AA were too poor to pay this.
1898 ‘grandfather clause’ in Louisiana. Could only vote if their fathers/grandfathers had voted before Jan 1867 (when AA gained the right to vote).
Some states required people to own a home/pass a literacy test.
By 1910 few AAs could vote so few became policial leaders at any level. Many accepted the situation.
1880-1910 saw the height of the lynching campaign against them with 100 per year.
who was Booker T Washington and what did he do for civil rights?
Born a slave in Virginia. He attended college after emancipation and became a teacher. 1881 set up Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Model for education linked to vocational training for AAs. he believed to gain progress they had to be educated. Said change would be slow.
Set up National Urban League to help black workers adjust to industrual, urban life. He thought hard work and financial success would weaken discrimination. Geogria speech 1895 he argued if AAs could be seen as economic partners rather than a threat to control problems would be resolved. Critics attacked this attempt at accomodation but established him as leader of AA in the south.
Critics say his acceptance of white supremacy did little to challenge the civil rights problem. He underestimated the need for the vote and overestimated the benefits of working within the system.
Provided a role model for AA as he progressed from slave to principal and had strict self-discipline. He developed valuable contracts for AA. Roosevelt often consulted him & invited him to the White House.
who was W Du Bois and what did he do for civil rights?
Lecturer in philosophy. First he supported Washington but then in 1900 he wanted more active resistance. Wanted the use of legal and political processes.
Niagara Movement 1905- emphasised on action for rights. Never became a mass movement (too academic and lacked money and organisation). Provided impetus to AA who wanted change.
Helped set ip the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) to investigate and help prosecute cases.
what was the position of AAs in 1912?
Still second class citizens. Any previous political roles dissappeared. None in Congress or at state level. The rate to vote had been removed by state laws. It became very difficult to challenge racism.
Segregation laws formalised and AAs were faced with inferior facilities.
Formal education chances did increase and AAs were free to leave the south and move north.
Civil rights movement began to be developed (especially with the NAACP).
