Processing the Environment

Question 1

There are 3 steps to memory:

Answer 1

1) Encoding
2) Storage
3) Retrieval

Question 2

What is sensory memory? Is it storage, encoding, or retrieval? What are the two types of sensory memory?

Answer 2

Sensory memory: brief snapshot of sensory information that decays quickly (storage)

1) Iconic memory (visual)
2) Echoic memory (auditory)

Question 3

Which lasts longer between the 2 types of sensory memory?

Answer 3

Echoic memory lasts a few seconds, whereas iconic memory lasts less than a second

(e.g., if friend says something and you zone out, you can still remember it a couple seconds later)

Question 4

How much information can short-term memory hold? How long can it be held?

Answer 4

limited in duration and capacity (7+/-2 pieces of information)

Usually around 20 seconds

Question 5

How long can we hold long-term memory information? How much information can we store?

Answer 5

Indefinitely, and unlimited amount

Question 6

What are the 2 types of long-term memory?

Answer 6

1) Implicit: memory without conscious recall
2) Explicit: memory of what is known and experienced that is actively stated

Question 7

What are 2 types of implicit memory?

Answer 7

1) Procedural memory (riding a bike)
2) Emotional memory (feelings associated with a place)

Note: These are things that are hard to explain (how do you explain how to ride a bike to someone?)

Question 8

What are 2 types of explicit memory?

Answer 8

1) Semantic memory (memory for facts)
2) Episodic memory (memory for events, e.g., 9/11)

Note: these are things I can explain…this is what a word means, this is what happened.

Question 9

What is retrieval?

Answer 9

The process of finding information in stored memory

Question 10

What are some retrieval cues?

Answer 10

1) Priming: context clues (if I show you a picture of a rabbit, and then say the word hair later on, you will think “hare” because you’ve been primed)
2) State-dependent vs. context dependent memory

Question 11

What is the difference between state-dependent memory and context dependent memory?

Answer 11

State-dependent: Internal cues aid in memory retrieval (like mood)

Context-dependent: External cues aid in memory retrieval (environment, what room you’re studying in, etc)

Question 12

What is the serial position effect?

Answer 12

The tendency to remember things in the beginning and end better, and not remember the things in the middle of a list as well

Question 13

Why might we describe memory as reconstructive?

Answer 13

When we try to recall a memory, we are actually changing the memory slightly according to our mood, goals, or environment

Question 14

What are flashbulb memories?

Answer 14

Either positively or negaively valenced memories that feel very vivid (e.g., 9/11)

Question 15

What is long-term potentiation?

Answer 15

The connections between neurons strengthen

This is an example of neurplasticity

Question 16

What is interference? What are the two types?

Answer 16

Interference: Information is blocking our retrieval of information that’s in storage

1) Retroactive interference
2) Proactive interference

Question 17

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 17

Interference that goes backwards (something you just learned seems to reach back and impair something you used to know)

e.g., When you move to a new place, and now you forget your old address

Question 18

What is proactive interference?

Answer 18

Interference moving forward. Something you learned in the past gets in the way of your ability to learn and retrieve something in the future.

e.g., Using an old password for a really long time, and when you need to make a new one, you can’t remember it because you can only think of the old password.

Question 19

Korsakoff’s syndrome is caused by a lack of thiamine, or Vitamin ___ in the brain.

Answer 19

Korsakoff’s syndrome is caused by a lack of thiamine, or Vitamin B1 in the brain.

Question 20

The precursor to Korsakoff’s syndrome is:

Answer 20

Wernicke’s Encephalopathy.

At this stage, the disease is reversible if treated.

Question 21

The main sympton of Korsakoff’s syndrome is severe memory loss and confabulation. What is confabulation?

Answer 21

Making up stories to fill in gaps in memory

Question 22

What is the spreading activation model?

Answer 22

When a node in a semantic network is activated, nodes directly connected to that node are activated, as well (aka priming).

E.g., if I say “firetruck”, not only do you think of a firetruck, but you also think of fire, trucks, the color red, etc.

Question 23

What is semantic long-term memory?

Answer 23

A theory of memory that posits that our memory is a network of interconnected nodes containing factual concepts (e.g., a pig is an animal, a mammal, etc.) The organization and relationship between nodes is unique to each inividual.

Question 24

In the semantic long-term memory model, a node which has a longer link means…

Answer 24

it is less easily recalled (so it will take longer to recall this information than a node that has a shorter link)

Question 25

What is the name of the reward pathway in the brain? Which brain regions largely comprise this pathway? What is the main neurotransmitter of this pathway?

Answer 25

The Mesolimbic pathway:

1. Ventral Tegmental area (VTA) - release dopamine (main NT)

2. Nucleus accumbens (controls motor movement)

3. Amygdala (happiness, or satisfation from experience)

4. Hippocampus (let me remember this experience)

Question 26

Parkinson’s Disease is a neurodegenerative disease, but unlike Alzheimer’s, the brain damage is restricted to a specific brain region: the ________

Answer 26

Parkinson’s Disease is a neurodegenerative disease, but unlike Alzheimer’s, the brain damage is restricted to a specific brain region: the substantia nigra (in the midbrain)

Question 27

Is functionalism a Macro or Micro sociological theory?

Answer 27

Macro

Question 28

What are the key ideas of Functionalism?

Answer 28

1. Society is an organism, which each part working together to maintain stability (equilibrium)
2. Each institution performs a function, which can either be manifest or latent.

Question 29

What are manifest functions in Functionalism?

Answer 29

An action of an institution that is intended to help some part of the system (e.g., schools are meant to teach students)

Question 30

What are latent functions in Functionalism?

Answer 30

An unintended positive consequence of an institution (e.g., while schools are meant to teach students, they also allow for social connections to be made)

Question 31

Is Conflict theory a Macro or Micro sociological theory?

Answer 31

Macro

Question 32

Conflict theory claims that inequality is based on ________

Answer 32

Conflict theory claims that inequality is based on social class.

Question 33

What is Social constructionism?

Answer 33

Reality is created through social itneractons, and objects like money and behaviors only have meaning because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning. There are no “brute facts”

Macro

Question 34

Unlike Conflict Theory and Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism is a ___________ theory

Answer 34

Unlike Conflict Theory and Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism is a microsociological theory

Question 35

What are the key features of Symbolic interactionism?

Answer 35

1. Concerned with person-to-person interactions
2. Argues that we attach meaning to symbols in society, and that interpersonal interaction is based on those symbols and meaning.
   (e. g., To me, sitting under a tree means shade. To another person (who has been bitten by ants), sitting under a tree means that you could get bitten by ants). Our meanings can change throughout life, though

Question 36

Is social exchange theory a macro or micro sociological theory?

Answer 36

Micro

Question 37

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 37

It looks at the person-to-person relationships (e.g., between family members). Largely focuses on weighing the costs/ benefits of behaviors.

If a behavior is punished, it is less likely to be repeated. If a behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated.

Question 38

What is the “hidden curriculum?”

Answer 38

The expected social and cultural norms that are taught informally

Question 39

What is self-concept? What are the 2 main components of the self-concept?

Answer 39

A term used to describe how someone thinks about, perceives, or evaluates themself.

1) Existential self: we are separate entities from other people, and our self-concept is constant.
2) Categorical self: We are comprised by categories (develops early..”I’m a girl” or “I’m five years old”). As we grow, we categorize ourselves by internal traits

Question 40

Carl Rogers (humanistic psychology) believed that the Self-concept had 3 main components:

Answer 40

1) Self-image (how we view ourselves)
2) Self-esteem (how much value do we put on ourselves)
3) Ideal self (our goal self)

Question 41

To develop a social identity, we go from:

___________ –> __________ –> ____________

Answer 41

categorization –> identification –> comparison

categorization: putting ourselves/ other people in a group

identification: starting to adopt the practices of the group that we have defined ourselves as being a part of

comparison: compare ourselves to other groups to maintain self-esteem

Question 42

What is self-efficacy?

Answer 42

The belief in one’s ability to to succeed in a particular situation

Question 43

The four sources of self-efficacy are:

1) Mastery of experience
2) Social modeling
3) Social persuasion
4) Psychological responses

What do these things mean?

Answer 43

1) Mastery of experience: If I did it before, I can do it again
2) Social modeling: seeing someone else achieve a task makes you think you can do it
3) Social persuasion: When someone says something positive/ encouraging that helps you achieve a goal
4) Psychological responses: Learning how to minimize stress/ elevate mood during difficult tasks, we can improve self-efficacy

Question 44

Perfectionists have a (low/high) sense of self-esteem and a (low/high) sense of self-efficacy

Answer 44

Perfectionists have a (low) sense of self-esteem and a (high) sense of self-efficacy

They are overly critical of themselves, but know they are quite capable in other areas.

Question 45

What is the difference between internal and external locus of control?

How might each react to a test gone well/ poorly?

Answer 45

Internal: when a person believes he/she can influence events/ outcomes of events. They attribute the results to their own traits.

(Test example: either they prepared well or didn’t prepare well.)

External: Blames outside forces for everything. They attribute events to environmental causes.

(Test: either the teacher made the test too easy or too hard)

Question 46

Freud and Erikson focused on how ______ develops.

Answer 46

Freud and Erikson focused on how personality develops.

Question 47

Vigotsky and Piaget focused on how ______ develops

Answer 47

Vigotsky and Piaget focused on how cognition develops

Question 48

Kohlberg focused on how _____ develops

Answer 48

Kohlberg focused on how morality develops

Question 49

What are Freud’s stages of Psychosexual development?

Answer 49

1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latent
5. Genital

Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

Question 50

What are the ages associated with Freud’s stages?

Answer 50

1. Oral (0-1 years)
2. Anal (1-3 years)
3. Phallic (3-6 years)
4. Latent (7-12/ puberty)
5. Genital (12-18/ adulthood)

Question 51

What is the major conflict to resolve at each stage of Freud’s theory?

Answer 51

1. Oral: feeding

2. Anal: toilet-training

3. Phallic: Oedipus/ Electra Complex

4. Latent: Socialism and devolopment of new skills (more concerned with peer relationships)

5. Genital: sexual maturity

Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

Question 52

What adult fixations would happen if each stage of Freud’s development did not occur successfully?

Answer 52

1. Oral: orally fixated (biting nails, smoking, overeating)

2. Anal: excessive cleanliness (anal) or sloppiness

3. Phallic: sexual dysfunction/ homosexuality

4. Latent: nothing

5. Genital: If previous stages have been successfully completed, person is “mentally healthy”

Old Age Parrots Love Grapes

Question 53

What are the 3 zones in Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural cognitive development?

Answer 53

1. What you cannot do
2. Zone of proximal development (area most sensitive to instruction – bridges the what you can’t do with what you can)
3. What you can do (Zone of current development)

Question 54

What are the 3 main levels (and the two sublevels for each) of morality according to Kohlberg?

What do they involve?

Answer 54

1. Preconventional: Considers only consequences of behavior

a. Punishment: individual acts to avoid punishment
b. Reward: individual acts to maximize reward

2. Conventional: Considers social judgments

a. Social disapproval: individual acts in a way to minimize disapproval from others who find out about what they’re doing.
b. Rule following: obey laws, rules, and keep order

3. Post-conventional: morality is based on higher moral reasoning

a. Social contract: Laws are social contracts that can be changed when they do not promote general welfare, considered in the context of helping the greatest number of people.
b. Universal Ethics: Will have strong beliefs about what is right and wrong, and are willing to pay the consequences from disapproval from others.

Question 55

What are Freud’s 3 stages of consciousness?

Answer 55

Id, Ego, Superego

Question 56

What is the Id?

Answer 56

Primal: instant gratification with no regard for morality or social norms

Question 57

What is the Superego?

Answer 57

Develops later in life, through internalization of society’s rules for moral behavior.

Learned primarily through interactions with caregivers

Question 58

What is the Ego?

Answer 58

Balances the Id and the superego. Forces the delay of gratification of the Id’s desires until a socially acceptable form of gratification is found.

Question 59

In Freud’s Iceberg model, the Id, Ego, and Superego are conscious, unconscious, and preconscious?

Answer 59

Id is completely unconscious.

Superego is all three (unconscious, preconscious, and conscious)

Ego is largely conscious and preconscious (a little bit unconscious)

Question 60

What is self-concept?

Answer 60

The sum of ways in which we describe ourself in the past (who we used to be), in the present (who we are), and in the future (who we might be).

Doesn’t involve any kind of judgment

Question 61

What is the difference between self-esteem and self-concept?

Answer 61

Self-esteem is an evaluation of ourselves (involves some kind of judgment).

Question 62

Marcia’s Theory of Identity status:

What is Identity diffusion?

Answer 62

Identity diffusion: a person has not engaged in identity exploration and they have not formed a sense of identity.

Identity is diffuse…just not there.

Question 63

Marcia’s Theory of Identity status:

What is identity moratorium?

Answer 63

Identity moratorium: A person is actively exploring identify formation, but has not yet formed a stable identity

(aka looking but hasn’t found).

Think: looking through some kind of building, but haven’t actually found anything yet.

Question 64

Marcia’s Theory of Identity status:

What is identity foreclosure?

Answer 64

Identity foreclosure: the person has developed a sense of identity, but has not undergone an identity crisis (a person has chosen to adopt the identity values of others, without looking for their own identity).

Has not looked, but has found.

Foreclosure: Could not even be looking for a new house, but can’t pass up this deal (not looking, but found).

Question 65

Marcia’s Theory of Identity status:

What is identity achievement?

Answer 65

A person has undergone an identity crisis and has come out with a strong sense of identity. This is the opposite of identity diffusion.

Someone has gone through a really trying experience and has come out victorious.

(has looked and has found)

Question 66

What’s the difference between a positive control and a negative control?

Answer 66

A positive control group is not exposed to an experimental condition, but is exposed to a treatement that already has a known effect.

A negative control group is not exposed to ANY treatment (experiment or already known)

For example, imagine that you wanted to know if some lettuce carried bacteria. You set up an experiment in which you wipe lettuce leaves with a swab, wipe the swab on a bacterial growth plate, incubate the plate, and see what grows on the plate. As a negative control, you might just wipe a sterile swab on the growth plate. You would not expect to see any bacterial growth on this plate, and if you do, it is an indication that your swabs, plates, or incubator are contaminated with bacteria that could interfere with the results of the experiment. As a positive control, you might swab an existing colony of bacteria and wipe it on the growth plate. In this case, you would expect to see bacterial growth on the plate, and if you do not, it is an indication that something in your experimental set-up is preventing the growth of bacteria.

Question 67

What is parallel play?

Answer 67

Parallel play involves children playing by themselves and observing another child playing, then adjusting his/her behavior accordingly. This largely happens at a young age (around 4).

As children get older, they are more likely to play with one-another

Question 68

What is a “more”?

Answer 68

Norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welafre of a society and have consequences if violated

Question 69

What is “anomie”?

Answer 69

Society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness

Question 70

What is inclusive fitness?

Answer 70

Behaving in a way that ensures propogation of your genes.

Question 71

What are the Kubler-Ross Model stages that people experience at the end of their lives?

Answer 71

Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Mneumonic: Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance

Question 72

What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis?

Answer 72

The activation-synthesis hypothesis suggests that dreams are boyproducts of brain activation during REM sleep; this theory allows for the possibility that dreams are NOT purposeful

Question 73

What is Social Cognitive Theory?

Answer 73

Social cognitive theory says that people learn by watching others, and if they see someone is rewarded for their behavior, they are more likely to behave that way, too.

(e.g., Bobo doll experiment show social learning)

Question 74

What is the difference between total mortality rate and crude mortality rate?

Answer 74

• *total mortality rate** = number of deaths/year
• *crude mortality rate** = number of deaths/1000 people/year

Question 75

Peripephery country vs. semi-periphery country

Answer 75

Periphery = Weak central government, economy based on raw materials and unskilled production of goods. Semiperiphery has stable gov and diversified economy but lacks global/ economic influence

Question 76

What is the stable replacement fertility rate?

Answer 76

The # of children a woman needs to give birth to to have one daughter of child-bearing age. (2.1 is optimal number, because you have a roughly 50% of having a girl).

Often referred to as “zero population growth”