Process consultation exam

Question 1

Lineal thinking (traditional scientific approach):

Answer 1

• Lineal thinking is based on the traditional scientific approach where you can simplify and reduce complexity.
• In Lineal thinking you can stay outside and be objective without affecting the system. In lineal thinking you can repeat the same study and come up with the same conclusions.
• But a criticism of this approach is that you do not understand the whole but only a small part of the system.

Question 2

General systems theory (GST) and first order cybernetics:

Answer 2

• In general systems theory (GST) or first order cybernetics they see systems as self-regulating (like the human body) and the systems as cause and effect.
• In this view the world is seen as a system of systems.
• Because of this first order cybernetics has a hard time explaining social systems because they do not react in the same way when given the same input.
• In this view the consultant does not affect the system.
• It might help to think of it as people who are observed without them knowing. They will not be affected by the presence of a consultant.

Question 3

Systemic thinking and second order cybernetics

Answer 3

• In systemic thinking you focus on the whole and how everything is linked rather than just subparts and you recognize that systems can learn and develop.
• Here the human body can best be understood in the context of relationships with each other, meaning that context and system matters rather than just individual focus.
• In systemic thinking/ second order cybernetics we have developed to circular rather than linear thinking. Meaning that the past influence the way behave today and we as consultants have to look at a longer sequence of events.
• The consultant will affect the system and become part of the system – as soon as the consultant get in touch with the company it will affect the system. And when entering the room it is different how the different people get affected because they will react differently to the same input (they learn and develop)
• You can start by talking to an individual but it is important that the system will be the smallest unit of analysis.
• In therapy: You would work with the whole family instead of just the child to learn more about the child.
• Strive to unfold the linear explanations given and to find out how it fits with others explanations.

Question 4

Cybernetics

Answer 4

• Is a science that addresses control and regulation of feedback in systems

Question 5

Social constructionist epistemology

Answer 5

• Epistemology: The relation between the researcher and the observed part is important. It is the theory of knowledge – what knowledge is and how it can be acquired.
• Social Constructionist epistemology: There are a multiverse of truths and all of these are seen as socially constructed (e.g. the traffic light)
• And all social construction is rooted in culture and cultural traditions
• Is very focused on language and conversation and how knowledge is constructed
• And then you might say. How do we know what valid knowledge is? Why care about valid knowledge if it works in the society?
• And then it is important to state that this epistemology does not believe that there is no reality or nothing – but when we define what reality is then it is spoken from a cultural tradition. (Gergen & Gergen)
• We actually have a quote saying “Nothing is real unless we agree that it is”

Question 6

Expert consultation:

Answer 6

• You will bring expertise into the organization with the aim to solve problems and help develop the organization.
• Based on realist epistemology, where the consultant is seen as an objective outsider to the system.
• Organizational insights are limited.

Question 7

Process consultation

Answer 7

• The goal is to facilitate constructive conversation to help people learn. Actually you will teach them how to solve problems themselves rather than just solving the problem.
• It will involve everyone relevant in the system.
• Based on social constructionist epistemology and the consultant will become a subjective part of the system that will affect the system.

Question 8

Central assumptions underlying systemic consultation

Answer 8

• Context is central (the unique meaning that people attribute to the situation)
• Problems always have to do with relations
• From investigation of discrete entities to the study of patterns
• From linear to circular thinking (from first order to second order cybernetics)
• Problem solving is a collaborative process between consultant and client
• The client is the one to solve the problem in the end
• Consultant can help clients take meta-position
• From one explanation to many possible explanations (multiverse)
• Circular hypotheses are considered effective means for creating change
• Open-mindedness, curiosity, and humbleness

Question 9

Facilitation definition

Answer 9

• Is about helping others and improve they way they are working together in a process
• Means: “Make things easier, promote and help forward”

Question 10

Levels of facilitation

Answer 10

• Process Design Facilitation: Entire consultation from A to Z.
• Event facilitation: An event like the seminar, workshop, meeting.
• In-the-moment facilitation: When something unexpected happen and you have to act fast and adapt. E.g. when only 3 out of 4 showed up to our consultation. An improvised level.

Question 11

Tools and techniques for facilitation:

Answer 11

• Game mastering: Clearing expectation is you sense that has not been done - or presenting the agenda at a meeting. A time-out can also be game mastering. Sum up is also game mastering. An important goal of game mastering is to change the language game if the language is not constructive
• Reflective teams: Purpose: Put people in either talking or listening positions: Control how much they talk and who talk at each time. Force people to listen and only listen at certain points. Lot of variations of reflective teams. You can focus on different things: One give feedback to pre-meeting, another to the consultants and a third will look at the conversation in general. Also the fishball exercise
• Question technique: Ask question with simple assumptions or more future oriented to gently push the system. In the beginning of the course focus was on lineal and circular question but more and more she was convinced that it is a good idea to start by asking more reflective question to get an idea of where we are going (Karl Tomm)
• Role play: Can be used as process consultants - to put people in the tools of other people.
• Hypothesizing: You can change the working hypothesis in the process and maybe accept or reject. BUT if you write down your pre-assumptions wouldn’t you be influenced by the that? But when coming up with a working hypothesis it is something that we have analyzed before so it can be seen as a way to be conscious about your thought
• Knowledge cafes: Can be used in many different ways: A situation with clients where you want them to come up with as many ideas as possible. Also a technique that can be used.
• We have been taking our own medicine in this course. We have tried most of the exercises.

Question 12

Karl Tomm question framework:

Answer 12

• Consist of 4 types of questions: Lineal, circular, reflexive and strategic questions.
• The lineal questions are clarifying questions which can be helpful to gain an understanding of the situation but also be very narrow and “cause and effect” type of questions.
• Circular questions let you get more into dept: “What do you think others will say about this subject?”
• Relfexive questions: will be more hypothecial questions like “What are the desired outcome if you look 6 months ahead?”
• Strategic questions: is more leading and confronting questions like “How could you support your desired change?”
• Start by asking lineal  circular  Reflexive  strategic. Even though it might be necessary to go back and forth between the questions.

Question 13

Game mastering (facilitation of constructing constructive conversations):

Answer 13

• A technique in systemic process consultation – a meeting about the meeting
• A game master works on the meta-level to focus on the structure by defining and suggesting rules of the game or what we know as the meeting (Vestergaard). Focus on what we want to achieve rather than what we cannot do
• Examples of techniques
o Making the agenda explicit (Something we were really good at in both the pre-meeting and consultation)
o Finding a common threat
o Encourage to find different perspectives (as social constructionist epistemology)
o Making implicit assumptions explicit (as social constructionist epistemology)
o Define what we want to achieve rather than the problem
o Agreeing on what was decided, and who does what (Something we were really good at in both the pre-meeting and consultation)
• Competencies of a game master:
o Reflection skills
o Be able to be above the conversation (meta-level and overview)
o Read between the lines and see-through language games.
o Aware of power positions, inclusion and exclusion (maybe difficult for the employee to speak when the manager is in the room)
• Tasks of the game master:
o Facilitate conversation about the conversation
o Act as role model – suggest new ways of talking about a topic
o Help whom we disagree with to be heard
o Help to make new rules and introduce new language games
o Help people connect and build up new relations

Question 14

Bifurcation points

Answer 14

• Is by Vestergaard defined as “examples of situations where the meeting is about to become chaotic”
• If you are able to discover this point before it is too late then you can point out different understandings.
• “I am right – they are wrong” – Acknowledge that others do what make sense from their perspectives.

Question 15

Exercises:

Answer 15

• Standard exercises must most often be adapted to fit the context.
• Should be relevant for the context and not just fun.
• Important to always remember to introduce the purpose of an exercise to the clients
• Should and do
• Systemic intro
• Unfold the vision
• Ability Spotting exercise
• Fish Bowl exercise
• Consensus exercise
• Missing Person exercise

Question 16

Identity work

Answer 16

• Identity work emphasizes identity as a process, where many parallel social-identities are at play rather than to assume one fixed identity.
• Identity construction can be conscious and more unconscious.
• Is seen as dynamic and fragmented: You can have many identities at the same time.
• Watson put up a model consisting of discourses, social identities and self-identities which is meant to be a circular model.
• Discourses:
o Socially constructions of deeply embedded “truths” that have become unquestioned and taken for granted.
o Determines what is said and done within a social community. Some years ago it was a common sentence to say “I will go to the smokers because that is the fun part of the party”.
o Discourse analysis help us unfold discourses that are taken for granted and to question them. If we are not aware that we have created a truth then it is important to question them.
o Discourses are not easily changed: Maybe that is why there is no arrow pointing back from social identities to discourses.
o Example: Before ok to flirt at the work place. Now challenged by the discourse of sexism. Some we do not think about like traffic lights – we stop at red. Dangerous if they are never challenged.
• Social identity:
o Dynamically developed, maintained, broken down, repaired and transformed. An interactional accomplishment. At the same time social identities is what we think others think of us. We don’t really know if other people think of us like we think they do (the arrow point back)
o External aspects of a person’s identity
o The link between social identity and discourses: If you get really drunk you will tell you teacher, friends and parents different stories: You write what fits in the social construction of the group and you will write what others expect from you.
o See 5 types beneath:
• Self-identity:
o The individuals own notion of who and what they are (and are not)
o The internal aspects of a person’s identity (or anti identity)
o Most enduring part of the identity is self identity. What you see when you watch yourself in the mirror – hard in practice to distinct between social and self identities because we will always think about what others think about us.

Watson 2008

Question 17

5 types of social identity

Answer 17

• Analytical distiction to determine which belong to which group.
• Social categoties
o Class, gender, nationality, ethnicity
o More stable: Difficult to change. If parents german then you are german.
• Formal role
o Occupation, rank, citizenship
o Being in some kind of association, e.g. Green-piece
• Local organizational
o Old-stylr professor, Engineer
o Social identity is embedded in some kind of organizational setting, maybe a certain way of treating their employees, has to do with the community you are a part of.
o Something that characterizes these organizations. I am this kind of employee because I am part of management - we tend to talk about indexes and numbers. More about the whole organization and characteristics of the employees in that organization.
• Local personal
o Life and soul of the office, The moody
o Maybe the class-clown from primary school. Someone who meant something special in a local setting.
o Who you are and what you have become. You might be the life and soul of the office but not at home. Someone else might have this role at home. I could have the conception that other people might think that I am less of an academic in school because I was a DIY manager before- More to do with a single person.
• Cultural stereotype
o Boring accountant, Neerdy engineer
o Maybe something that comes more intuitively.

Question 18

Wieland: Ideal selves (an alternative for Watson’s identity work)

Answer 18

• Close to being the same as social identities but with a bit different perspective.
• Differences: Wieland focuses only on how people should be. Watson: How social identities affect and not necessarily the ideal.
• There are something that forces the ideal selves but not as unconscious as discourses.

Question 19

McAdams: Stories we live by

Answer 19

• We all tell stories about ourselves and others everyday
• Less about facts and more about meaning
• Strongest stories may develop into personal myths
• Stories instruct, we learn how to (and how not to) live and act
• Stories may have a healing power
• If you find it strange that you never finish your identity you can use this to show that you are building a story and keep on adding on

Question 20

Neutrality and curiosity

Answer 20

• Neutrality is about being impartial and without judgement. The judgement of neutrality is seen as the client-systems perception of the effect of what the consultant does
• BUT neutrality has been criticized for being a position of non-involvement and appear to be bored or not having the right competencies (relativistic without opinion)
• Therefore we need to take Cecchin article of “Neutrality as a state of curiosity” into consideration. You can avoid being perceived as incompetent by being curious.
• You are curious by asking questions, keep asking questions, aim to get insights, listen to linear explanations but stay curious and ask for other explanations as well.
• “You can accept a linear explanation, but you cannot believe it “ Cecchin.
• Irreverence (not humble/disrespect) (questioning own ideas, and showing respect)
• In the concept of curiosity you are involved in the system and affect the system and this is aligned with social constructionist epistemology – do not use neutrality, unless we want to indicate that we have become to neutral.

Objectivity ——————–Neutrality———————– Curiosity
(Expert consultant) (Observer) (System - process consultant)

Question 21

Hypothesizing:

Answer 21

• ”Be careful not to fall in love with your own hypothesis”
• Working hypothesis: Technique used to remind ourselves to be curious and using circular hypothesis you can create new stories.
• It should be seen as a kind of fragmented information that we try to see a pattern in – when you see a pattern you try to formulate the working hypothesis.
• When you make your hypothesis, you should put yourself in a meta-position (being involved and uninvolved at the same time)
• The purpose of using a working hypothesis: Address the unspoken. Many hypotheses give varieties of possible understandings, and it is actually useful to have contradictory hypothesis that can help you investigate the many truths.
• Should you tell the client about the hypothesis or not?
o Aha-experience for consultant and client
o Giving the client a sense of being understood
o Positive reframing: “Behind every problem lies a frustrated dream” – Peter Lang.
 Example: “I can see you have a lot of things to do here. You must be very successful” – Reframing an unstructured problem in a positive way.
o BUT watch out if the client uncritically accept your hypothesis

Question 22

Social Domain (language games) Theory (Lang)

Answer 22

• It is closely related to neutrality and curiosity (being curious from the different domains). AND there is a relation between CMM and Social Domain theory.
• Is used for the purpose of distinguishing between different language acts/language games (from CMM) when being a consultant still remain curious.
• At the same time it also helps the consultant take different positions while still remain loyal to social constructionist epistemology and become conscious about what is co-created in conversations with others and shifting between domains.
• Assumptions:
o The human language unfolds in different domains (logics) and we uncounsciously exist in all domains at the same time – BUT we cannot take on different domains of reference at the same time.
o Be aware that curiosity means different things in the different domains.
o The more conscious we are about changing between the domains the better we will be at changing the language games. We can shift between the domains in a very short time.
• Domains:
• Aesthetics:
o Most superior – because it is the intuitive domain and deeply embedded in self. Self-identity is embedded here.
o Values, emotions, taste, what you like, moral and ethical stance, professional integrity
o CURIOSITY: respect, empathy and integrity.
o Examples of questions: How do you feel about working with? How do you think it will affect your everyday life?
o Backside from using only this domain: Risk of conflicts and emotional tension, ineffectiveness. Happy-go-lucky: If all have the same feelings and agree: risk of ineffectiveness (group-think)
• Production:
o Norms, rules, discourses, right/wrong and facts, objective terms (universal truths), lineal thinking (cause and effect). Sometimes have to construct truths, guidelines and regulations. Have to agree on some kind of social constructions. Some stories are given from a privileged position. Consultants are expected to provide right answers to questions.
o CURIOSITY: investigation of rules, regulations, norms and procedures.
o Examples of questions: What are the rules about that? How would you normally deal with? How do we divide the task between us?
o Backside from using only this domain: Formal climate based on rules and policies, lack of change and passion and ownership to change anything. Lot of lineal thinking.
• Reflection domain (explanation):
o Generating new ideas, new ways of questioning what have been done, elaboration of stories, all stories are equally valid, multiverse rather than universe, change is on the agenda.
o Circularity, hypothesizing, systemic consults emphasize this
o CURIOSITY: Exploration of multiverse.
o Examples of questions: How can we get more perspectives on that? What does it take to make it more interesting and relevant? Could there be other ways to solve this?
o Backside from using only this domain: Too much talk without progress to getting to hear everyone’s opinion, lack of decisions, frustration.

• They have to meet in the relfection domain because this is where you acknowledge the multiverse of truths.

Question 23

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) (Pearce)

Answer 23

• Has been an inspiration for game mastering
• “You cannot not communicate”. Communication is everywhere and it is the primary social process which is co-constructed and dialogic.
• CMM believe that we can never fully understand one another but we can create enough meaning to be able to coordinate.
• And we cannot control what other people take in from what we say – we can look at how our perspectives are similar and in which way they are different – the picture of the pig.
• Practical application:
o Focus on process and form of conversation rather than only outcome.
o Observe who talks? Who listens? Which domain do they speak from?
o Creating conversation that would otherwise not have existed. Help who we disagree with to be heard.
o Listening are valued as much as talk.
o Bifurcation points: “Right now we are talking in a way that I am not sure is constructive. Maybe we could change that?”

Question 24

CMM Hierarchy

Answer 24

• Closely related to identity work: Identities influence culture.
• Our identities influence who we become related to and what kind of events we participate in and how we talk to each other. - it is closely related with discourses.
• Implicative power: Think about how we say things and in that way change relations, self and culture. You have an opportunity to make an implication on the world.

• How can I/we do and say something differently (level of talk)
o Can I change the language game in this conversation?
• Which kind of event(s) should be established to support what we want (e.g. a meeting, community dialogue, a sports game, a lunch, a phone call) (level of episodes)
o Pre-meeting and consultation: Which relations should be made to change the language game in this organization?
• What relations should be formed, and how can we position us differently (level of relations)
o Both relationship between consultant and clients and betweens the clients.
• What’s important for me and other relevant stakeholders, and how can we respect each other’s scripts and values (level of life manus)
• What characterizes the meeting climate that we want to create (Level of culture)

Question 25

Language games

Answer 25

• Any conversation between people can be seen as a language game with certain implicit rules. The rules and norms of the game is built up about how we communicate.
• The people having a conversation becomes game players and learn the rules of the game and language game.
• And you communicate both by being silent and by talking, using different tones of voice, laugh, get upset, get disappointed
• The language games are not always constructive and can be negative. A consultant should try and change that.

Question 26

Ethical considerations

Answer 26

• Be aware of power influence as a consultant
• Transparency in what you do as a consultant – you cannot have any hidden agendas
• Huge responsibility to not manipulate, which themes you bring up, do you consider all participants equally?
• Be aware of your integrity as a consultant