Problem Solving

Question 1

History of cognitive psychology

Answer 1

• Emerged after WWII
• Computer is as a metaphor for the mind

Question 2

What is a problem
(Duncker, 1945)

Answer 2

• There are many activities which as seen as problem solving i.e. running a race
• This explanation is very broad

Question 3

What is a problem

Answer 3

• There are well defined steps to problems solving and a well defined goal.
• Several steps
• Conscious
• Requires planning
• Well defined goal

Question 4

What is problem solving?
(Eysenck & Keane, 2020)

Answer 4

• purposeful goal directed
• Involves cognitive processes
• Only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce immediate solution

Question 5

Two - String problem (Maier, 1931)

Answer 5

• Tie one strong to other
• Problem is you can’t reach both the strings
• Room contains objects such as piles, pliers and extension cords - these can be used to solve problems

Question 6

Tower of Hanoi problems

Answer 6

• Can only place each piece on a larger piece

Question 7

What’s a Insight Problem

Answer 7

• Solutions require a one off insight
• e.g. Two string problem

Question 8

What’s a non insight problem

Answer 8

• Require incremental and sequential problem solving
• e.g. Tower of Hanoi, algebra

Question 9

Jung-Beeman et al (2004)

Answer 9

• fmri study
• Right anterior superior temporal gyrus was activated only when solutions involved insight. Not involved in non insight trials

Question 10

Representational Change Theory Ohlsson (1992)

Answer 10

• Insight problems allow several mental representations
• Current representation is used to search memory for relevant information
• A block occurs when the problem representation is inappropriate

Question 11

Representational Change Theory
(Block)

Answer 11

• Block can be resolved by changing the representation
• This can occur in 3 ways :
  1) elaboration, i.e. hint
  2) constraint relaxation: extend ideas of what actions are possible
  3) re-encoding e.g. re interpret a aspect of the problem
• Insight usually follows the formation of a correct representation

Question 12

Kaplan & Simon (1990)
Chessboard problem

Answer 12

• Ps thought aloud, most solved them mentally
• Each domino covers one white and one black square
• board loses two white squares
  = 31 dominos cannot cover the board

Question 13

Knoblich, Ohlsson & Raney (2001)
Matchstick Problems

Answer 13

• Move a single stick to produce a true statement
• More likely to try and change number
• In maths we are more likely to change numbers than operators
• Ps fixate on values

Question 14

MacGregor, Ormerod & Chronicle (2001)
Nine dot problem

Answer 14

• 4 strait lines which go through all 9 dots without lifting a pen
• Have to go outside the box

Question 15

Newell & Simon (1972)
General Problem Solver

Answer 15

• Non insight problems
• Problem solving involves a range of different knowledge states between initial state and goal state.
• Operators chosen using heuristics (‘rule of thumb’)

Question 16

Means end analysis
(Newell & Simon)

Answer 16

• Help achieve sub goals - subgoals formed to climb smaller mountains first.
• Based on participants thinking out loud

Question 17

Hill Climbing
(Newell & Simon)

Answer 17

• Always upwards, eventually you may reach higher mountains
• Based on participants thinking out loud

Question 18

Thomas (1974)

Answer 18

• To solve the Goblin and Hobbit problem, you have to move away from your goal state.
• This means humans struggle as they use hill climbing strategy as don’t want to go down hill.

Question 19

Transfer
(negative)

Answer 19

• Previous experience can lead to positive or negative transfer
• (Duncker, 1945), candle problem. Participants fixated on box being a container and not that it could be a candle holder (functional fixedness)
• Improved performance if the tack box is empty

Question 20

Luchins (1942)

Answer 20

• Past experience getting in the way of new problems

Question 21

Transfer
(positive)

Answer 21

• The use of similarities between the current problem and relevant previous problems

Question 22

What is the difference between positive and negative transfers

Answer 22

• Positive transfers help learning in the future
• Negative transfers hinder future learning

Question 23

Duncker (1945)
Convergence Solution

Answer 23

Passage about cancer
- Convergence, weak rays
- Open Passage, radiation
- Surgery, direct exposure

Question 24

Gick & Holyoak (1980)

Answer 24

• Some participants told to use the story they had read as a hint in solving the radiation problem.
• Story which Ps read earlier on i the study influenced their solution to tumour story.
• Use of prior analogy was very low in the no hint control

Question 25

Holyoak & Koh (1987)

Answer 25

• Analogy group discussed radiation problem in class, control didn’t
• 3-7 days later, both groups presented target problem
• Spontaneous transfer was high, because greater surface similarity between two problems

Question 26

Surface vs Structural Similarity

Answer 26

• Surface = similar on surface level
• Structural = internal mechanisms

Holyoak & Koh (1987)
- Stories vary in surface and structural similarity

Question 27

Medin & Ortony (1989)

Answer 27

• Things that look alike usually are alike.
• Surface similarity isn’t actually a bad idea as below the surface they are most likely the same

Question 28

Dunbar & Blanchette (2001)

Answer 28

• Having to generate analogies requires people to use structural rather than surface similarities

Question 29

Summary

Answer 29

• Transfer occurs in insight and non insight problems
• Often need a hint
• Transfer depends on structural and surface similarity between source and target problems