Problem Solving Flashcards
History of cognitive psychology
- Emerged after WWII
- Computer is as a metaphor for the mind
What is a problem
(Duncker, 1945)
- There are many activities which as seen as problem solving i.e. running a race
- This explanation is very broad
What is a problem
- There are well defined steps to problems solving and a well defined goal.
- Several steps
- Conscious
- Requires planning
- Well defined goal
What is problem solving?
(Eysenck & Keane, 2020)
- purposeful goal directed
- Involves cognitive processes
- Only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce immediate solution
Two - String problem (Maier, 1931)
- Tie one strong to other
- Problem is you can’t reach both the strings
- Room contains objects such as piles, pliers and extension cords - these can be used to solve problems
Tower of Hanoi problems
- Can only place each piece on a larger piece
What’s a Insight Problem
- Solutions require a one off insight
- e.g. Two string problem
What’s a non insight problem
- Require incremental and sequential problem solving
- e.g. Tower of Hanoi, algebra
Jung-Beeman et al (2004)
- fmri study
- Right anterior superior temporal gyrus was activated only when solutions involved insight. Not involved in non insight trials
Representational Change Theory Ohlsson (1992)
- Insight problems allow several mental representations
- Current representation is used to search memory for relevant information
- A block occurs when the problem representation is inappropriate
Representational Change Theory
(Block)
- Block can be resolved by changing the representation
- This can occur in 3 ways :
1) elaboration, i.e. hint
2) constraint relaxation: extend ideas of what actions are possible
3) re-encoding e.g. re interpret a aspect of the problem - Insight usually follows the formation of a correct representation
Kaplan & Simon (1990)
Chessboard problem
- Ps thought aloud, most solved them mentally
- Each domino covers one white and one black square
- board loses two white squares
= 31 dominos cannot cover the board
Knoblich, Ohlsson & Raney (2001)
Matchstick Problems
- Move a single stick to produce a true statement
- More likely to try and change number
- In maths we are more likely to change numbers than operators
- Ps fixate on values
MacGregor, Ormerod & Chronicle (2001)
Nine dot problem
- 4 strait lines which go through all 9 dots without lifting a pen
- Have to go outside the box
Newell & Simon (1972)
General Problem Solver
- Non insight problems
- Problem solving involves a range of different knowledge states between initial state and goal state.
- Operators chosen using heuristics (‘rule of thumb’)
Means end analysis
(Newell & Simon)
- Help achieve sub goals - subgoals formed to climb smaller mountains first.
- Based on participants thinking out loud
Hill Climbing
(Newell & Simon)
- Always upwards, eventually you may reach higher mountains
- Based on participants thinking out loud
Thomas (1974)
- To solve the Goblin and Hobbit problem, you have to move away from your goal state.
- This means humans struggle as they use hill climbing strategy as don’t want to go down hill.
Transfer
(negative)
- Previous experience can lead to positive or negative transfer
- (Duncker, 1945), candle problem. Participants fixated on box being a container and not that it could be a candle holder (functional fixedness)
- Improved performance if the tack box is empty
Luchins (1942)
- Past experience getting in the way of new problems
Transfer
(positive)
- The use of similarities between the current problem and relevant previous problems
What is the difference between positive and negative transfers
- Positive transfers help learning in the future
- Negative transfers hinder future learning
Duncker (1945)
Convergence Solution
Passage about cancer
- Convergence, weak rays
- Open Passage, radiation
- Surgery, direct exposure
Gick & Holyoak (1980)
- Some participants told to use the story they had read as a hint in solving the radiation problem.
- Story which Ps read earlier on i the study influenced their solution to tumour story.
- Use of prior analogy was very low in the no hint control
Holyoak & Koh (1987)
- Analogy group discussed radiation problem in class, control didn’t
- 3-7 days later, both groups presented target problem
- Spontaneous transfer was high, because greater surface similarity between two problems
Surface vs Structural Similarity
- Surface = similar on surface level
- Structural = internal mechanisms
Holyoak & Koh (1987)
- Stories vary in surface and structural similarity
Medin & Ortony (1989)
- Things that look alike usually are alike.
- Surface similarity isn’t actually a bad idea as below the surface they are most likely the same
Dunbar & Blanchette (2001)
- Having to generate analogies requires people to use structural rather than surface similarities
Summary
- Transfer occurs in insight and non insight problems
- Often need a hint
- Transfer depends on structural and surface similarity between source and target problems
