problem 5 - science

Question 1

what is the definition of science?

Answer 1

a process by which objectively defensible knowledge is produced & handled by humans
- the way that human society truly ‘knows’ anything at all - it is a way of knowing
- the process of knowledge

Question 2

plato’s views knowledge

Answer 2

knowing/knowledge must be evidence-based or justified to be considered real knowledge
- e.g if you believe that its raining in japan and it is, by coincidence, raining in japan, this doesn’t mean that you truly know its raining in japan

justified true belief = for something to form knowledge, all three requirements (to be justified, to be true, and to be believed) must be met

Question 3

what is analytic truth?

Answer 3

true by definition

refers to something that has an already agreed meaning & so cannot be disputed without perverting the language that is used to express it

Question 4

what is an axion?

Answer 4

other types of info which are true by definition can be generated by your own thought, assuming you have been shown an appropriate system for doing so

e.g knowing that 1+1=2 allows you to figure out that 2-1=1

you can know conclusions without having to consult an external source or to look for evidence to corroborate your knowledge

Question 5

what is truism?

Answer 5

claims that are true without question

Question 6

what is deduction?

Answer 6

drawing a specific conclusion from a general statement

e.g. all dogs are mammals, so your neighbor’s dog will also be a mammal

deduction is always true - bcuz it uses logical reasoning

Question 7

what is induction?

Answer 7

drawing a general conclusion from a specific statement

e.g. your neighbor has 25 pets, and you know there are 24 of them are dogs → you conclude that the 25th will also be a dog

• isn’t always true
• uses assumptions and generalizations - but does have a certain likelihood of being true

Question 8

what is abduction?

Answer 8

considering a particular outcome along with some conditions and then combining this information - the bottom line is that the conditions cause the outcome

e.g. if your neighbor bought a ball of wool (outcome), people with a pet cat often give their cat a ball of wool (condition), so your neighbor will have a cat as a pet (conclusion)

not always true because there are always other explanations for the outcome ,
- but can help to explain things in a new way and thus generate theories

Question 9

analytical vs synthetic information

Answer 9

analytical: this is the truth by definition
- e.g. a dog is a mammal, so you know that all dogs are mammals

synthetic: this requires an outside source before it can be proven to be true
- e.g. with the statement, “snow is white,” you first have to look at the snow to know if it is white bcuz snow is not defined by white but by being a weather condition

Question 10

what is the general process of the scientific method (empirical cycle)

Answer 10

1. determine the research topic, preferably in the form of a question
2. conduct a review of previous scientific research on the matter
3. formulate a relevant hypothesis that clarifies the research question and on which an experimental study can be based
4. design a research procedure to test the hypothesis
5. conduct the study according to this procedure
6. analyze the results to see if the hypothesis is supported or not
7. report the findings

hypothesis is not supported: go back to step 3 and continue with a new hypothesis

Question 11

what is determinism (scientific method)

Answer 11

the idea that all events in the universe have causes and are predetermined

Question 12

what is skepticism? (scientific method)

Answer 12

involves calling into question and investigating any claim representing information - accepting claims based on authority is considered unscientific

Question 13

what is parsimony? (scientific method)

Answer 13

is the logical extension of skepticism applied to theoretical reasoning: means that when faced with two or more claims, the one based on the fewest unconfirmed properties is seen as the most compelling

Question 14

what is falsification (scientific method)

Answer 14

the demonstration of falsehood or untruth of a theory to determine the quality of the theory in this way

Question 15

what is the demarcation problem?

Answer 15

it is difficult to distinguish science from non-science and pseudoscience

where the contrasts are outwardly adversarial, distinguishing between science & non-science is usually straightforward - e.g. astronomy & astrology

however in many other cases the distinction is not as clear

Question 16

what is pseudoscience?

Answer 16

something that is not officially science but is presented as a science - so the proponents of the theories offer their ideas as if they were real science

Question 17

science vs pseudoscience: falsification

Answer 17

science: pays a lot of attention to falsifying claims - if a claim cannot be rejected, the accuracy cannot be determined

pseudoscience: pays little attention to falsifying claims
- 3 things play a role here: (1) the ideas often contradict themselves, (2) the ideas are vaguely formulated, and (3) many ideas cannot be falsified

Question 18

science vs pseudoscience: truthiness

Answer 18

science: is skeptical, if something is not proven, then there is ignorance
- does not mean that anything is true - as long as something has not been proven true, it cannot be assumed true

pseudoscience: is dogmatic, if something has not been proven, then it is assumed to be true

Question 19

science vs pseudoscience: parsimony

Answer 19

science: adheres to this principle of parsimony, as they adopt the theory that is the least complex

pseudoscience: avoids the principle, as it also adopts complex theories, as long as they agree with existing beliefs

Question 20

science vs pseudoscience: peer review

Answer 20

science: makes extensive use of this, often through the use of independent peer reviews (blind and anonymous)

pseudoscience: does not consider it necessary to have documents peer-reviewed and therefore publish them without this assessment

Question 21

science vs pseudoscience: value of experts

Answer 21

science: all claims are evaluated, regardless of who made the claims

pseudoscience: if a claim is made by a guru (important person) then this claim can be accepted

Question 22

science vs pseudoscience: anecdotal testimony

Answer 22

science: does not accept anecdotal evidence as it is of little value
- errors or bias may occur when anecdotal information is used and cannot be independently verified.

pseudoscience: less skeptical about anecdotal evidence and can use it if they judge it as objective evidence

Question 23

the four norms of science (CUDOS): communism

Answer 23

states that substantive results in science are the products of social cooperation and therefore belong to society instead of being owned by individuals or groups

Question 24

the four norms of science (CUDOS): universalism

Answer 24

regardless of origin, claims must be subject to pre-established impersonal criteria

claims should, therefore, not be rejected or accepted based on personal or social qualities

science must be objective

Question 25

the four norms of science (CUDOS): disinterestedness

Answer 25

forms a pattern of institutional control designed to contain the effects of individual scientists: personal or ideological motives

a scientist does not act in self-interest and will not commit fraud

Question 26

the four norms of science (CUDOS): organized skepticism

Answer 26

scientists should always be open to having theories tested/disproved

scientists do not assume anything without evidence