problem 5 - science Flashcards
what is the definition of science?
a process by which objectively defensible knowledge is produced & handled by humans
- the way that human society truly ‘knows’ anything at all - it is a way of knowing
- the process of knowledge
plato’s views knowledge
knowing/knowledge must be evidence-based or justified to be considered real knowledge
- e.g if you believe that its raining in japan and it is, by coincidence, raining in japan, this doesn’t mean that you truly know its raining in japan
justified true belief = for something to form knowledge, all three requirements (to be justified, to be true, and to be believed) must be met
what is analytic truth?
true by definition
refers to something that has an already agreed meaning & so cannot be disputed without perverting the language that is used to express it
what is an axion?
other types of info which are true by definition can be generated by your own thought, assuming you have been shown an appropriate system for doing so
e.g knowing that 1+1=2 allows you to figure out that 2-1=1
you can know conclusions without having to consult an external source or to look for evidence to corroborate your knowledge
what is truism?
claims that are true without question
what is deduction?
drawing a specific conclusion from a general statement
e.g. all dogs are mammals, so your neighbor’s dog will also be a mammal
deduction is always true - bcuz it uses logical reasoning
what is induction?
drawing a general conclusion from a specific statement
e.g. your neighbor has 25 pets, and you know there are 24 of them are dogs → you conclude that the 25th will also be a dog
- isn’t always true
- uses assumptions and generalizations - but does have a certain likelihood of being true
what is abduction?
considering a particular outcome along with some conditions and then combining this information - the bottom line is that the conditions cause the outcome
e.g. if your neighbor bought a ball of wool (outcome), people with a pet cat often give their cat a ball of wool (condition), so your neighbor will have a cat as a pet (conclusion)
not always true because there are always other explanations for the outcome ,
- but can help to explain things in a new way and thus generate theories
analytical vs synthetic information
analytical: this is the truth by definition
- e.g. a dog is a mammal, so you know that all dogs are mammals
synthetic: this requires an outside source before it can be proven to be true
- e.g. with the statement, “snow is white,” you first have to look at the snow to know if it is white bcuz snow is not defined by white but by being a weather condition
what is the general process of the scientific method (empirical cycle)
- determine the research topic, preferably in the form of a question
- conduct a review of previous scientific research on the matter
- formulate a relevant hypothesis that clarifies the research question and on which an experimental study can be based
- design a research procedure to test the hypothesis
- conduct the study according to this procedure
- analyze the results to see if the hypothesis is supported or not
- report the findings
hypothesis is not supported: go back to step 3 and continue with a new hypothesis
what is determinism (scientific method)
the idea that all events in the universe have causes and are predetermined
what is skepticism? (scientific method)
involves calling into question and investigating any claim representing information - accepting claims based on authority is considered unscientific
what is parsimony? (scientific method)
is the logical extension of skepticism applied to theoretical reasoning: means that when faced with two or more claims, the one based on the fewest unconfirmed properties is seen as the most compelling
what is falsification (scientific method)
the demonstration of falsehood or untruth of a theory to determine the quality of the theory in this way
what is the demarcation problem?
it is difficult to distinguish science from non-science and pseudoscience
where the contrasts are outwardly adversarial, distinguishing between science & non-science is usually straightforward - e.g. astronomy & astrology
however in many other cases the distinction is not as clear
what is pseudoscience?
something that is not officially science but is presented as a science - so the proponents of the theories offer their ideas as if they were real science
science vs pseudoscience: falsification
science: pays a lot of attention to falsifying claims - if a claim cannot be rejected, the accuracy cannot be determined
pseudoscience: pays little attention to falsifying claims
- 3 things play a role here: (1) the ideas often contradict themselves, (2) the ideas are vaguely formulated, and (3) many ideas cannot be falsified
science vs pseudoscience: truthiness
science: is skeptical, if something is not proven, then there is ignorance
- does not mean that anything is true - as long as something has not been proven true, it cannot be assumed true
pseudoscience: is dogmatic, if something has not been proven, then it is assumed to be true
science vs pseudoscience: parsimony
science: adheres to this principle of parsimony, as they adopt the theory that is the least complex
pseudoscience: avoids the principle, as it also adopts complex theories, as long as they agree with existing beliefs
science vs pseudoscience: peer review
science: makes extensive use of this, often through the use of independent peer reviews (blind and anonymous)
pseudoscience: does not consider it necessary to have documents peer-reviewed and therefore publish them without this assessment
science vs pseudoscience: value of experts
science: all claims are evaluated, regardless of who made the claims
pseudoscience: if a claim is made by a guru (important person) then this claim can be accepted
science vs pseudoscience: anecdotal testimony
science: does not accept anecdotal evidence as it is of little value
- errors or bias may occur when anecdotal information is used and cannot be independently verified.
pseudoscience: less skeptical about anecdotal evidence and can use it if they judge it as objective evidence
the four norms of science (CUDOS): communism
states that substantive results in science are the products of social cooperation and therefore belong to society instead of being owned by individuals or groups
the four norms of science (CUDOS): universalism
regardless of origin, claims must be subject to pre-established impersonal criteria
claims should, therefore, not be rejected or accepted based on personal or social qualities
science must be objective
the four norms of science (CUDOS): disinterestedness
forms a pattern of institutional control designed to contain the effects of individual scientists: personal or ideological motives
a scientist does not act in self-interest and will not commit fraud
the four norms of science (CUDOS): organized skepticism
scientists should always be open to having theories tested/disproved
scientists do not assume anything without evidence
