Private Oral Exam (blue book) Flashcards
What effect does increased density altitude have on takeoff and landing performance? Name 4 things.
Increased takeoff distance
Reduced rate of climb
Increased true airspeed on approach and landings
Increased landing roll distance
What are the different illusions?
ICE FLAGS
- *I**nversions
- *C**oriolis
- *E**levator
- *F**alse Horizon
- *L**eans
- *A**uto Kinesis
- *G**rave yard spins/spirals
- *S**omatogravic
How do you determine if your in a safe health condition to fly?
IM SAFE
- *I**llness
- *M**edications
- *S**tress
- *A**lcohol
- *F**atigue
- *E**motions
Speak with AME (aeronautical medical examiner)
What are the left turning tendencies?
Torque
Gyroscopic Procession
Asymmetrical thrust - more thrust on the decending blade
Spiraling slipstream - hits the back tail on the left side.
What is centrifugal force?
Its the feeling caused by the opposite reaction of centripical force and inertia.
What equipment is required for night flight?
ATOMATOE FLAMES+ FLAPS
Fuses
Landing Lights
Anti-collision lights
Position Lights
Source of electrical Power
What are your required equipment for day flights?
ATOMATOE FLAMES
Airspeed indicator
Temperature guage
Oil temp guage
Manifold pressure guage
Altimeter
Tachnometer
Oil pressure guage
ELT
Fuel guage
Landing gear lights
Anti Collision lights
Magnetic compass
Emergency equipment
Safety belts
Name the different types of class E airspace.
SETADOV
Surface
Extension
Transition
Above class ‘A’ airspace
Domestic enroute
Offshore
VFR Victor airways
What are the types of “other” airspace?
MTV PANT
Military training route
Temporary flight restriction
VFR Published Routes (Cooridor, flyways, transition routes)
Parachute jump
Airport advisory (FSS)
National Area
Terminal radar service area
What is a M.E.L?
Minimum Equipment List
A list of all things that can be inoperative but still allows the aircraft to be airworthy.
It is a specific document for a particular make and model.
What is a airworthiness certificate and how long does it remain valid?
A certificate issued by the FAA after inspections meet the requirements of 14CFR and is considered safe for flight.
The requirements must meet the original type certificate.
The certificate must be displayed in the aircraft so that it is legible to passengers or crew whenever the aircraft is operated, and it may be transferred with the aircraft except when sold to a foreign purchaser. Standard Airworthiness Certificates remain in effect as long as the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is properly registered in the United States
What are A.D’s?
Airworthiness Directives
Documents issued by the FAA when there is a faulty piece of equipment or something they determine to be a safety hazard. They will require you to replace the equipment 1 time or for the equipment to go through regular inspections.
What inspections should be included in the maintenance and engine log books? Name at least 5 things.
Annual/100 hr inspections
ELT inspections (every 12 calander months)
ELT battery expire date
Transponder Certification (24 calender mo.)
A.D’s compliances
What records or documents should be checked to determine that the owner or operator of an aircraft has complied with all required inspections and A.D’s?
Maintenace Records
What inspections should be checked?
AVIATES
Airworthiness Directives (A.D’s)
VOR checks - every 30 days
Inspections - 100 hr & Annual
Altimeter - 24 calender months
Transponder - 24 calendar months
ELT - 12 calendar months / 1/2 of battery life / after 1 hour of continuous use
Static pitot system - 24 calendar months.
What documents are needed on you as a private pilot before each flight?
Photo I.D - Government issued, License, or passport
Any instructor’s endorsements
Medical certification
When do medical certifications expire?
1st Class (ATP)
Under 40
- 1st class priv valid 12 months
- 2nd class priv valid 12 months
- 3rd class priv valid 60 months
Over 40
- 1st class priv valid 6 months
- 2 class priv valid 12 months
- 3 class priv valid 24 months
2nd Class (Commercial)
Under 40
- 2nd class priv valid 12 months
- 3rd class priv valid 60 months
Over 40
- 2nd class priv valid 12 months
- 3rd class priv valid 24 months
3rd Class (Private)
Under 40
- 3rd class priv valid 60 months
Over 40
- 3rd class priv valid 24 months
What is the proper procedure when using 14CFR91 to inoperate equipment?
If the inoperative item is not required and the airplane can be safely operated without it, the pilot should remove or deactivate the inoperative item and place an ‘INOPERATIVE” placard near the defective item.
When is wake turbulence the greatest?
When the aircraft is heavy, slow, and in a clean configuration.
What is wake turbulence?
Whirlpools of air from the wingtip whenever lift is generated.
Define maneuvering speed.
VA
Max speed abrupt movements can be applied or at which a plane can be flown in turbulence without exceeding load factor limits.
What is the purpose of UNICOM?
Aeronautical Advisory Station
- Exists at BOTH towered and non-towerd airports
- Ground station usually run by FBO employee
- May or may not share CTAF frequency
- Privately owned, can be used to ask for taxi or fuel info.
What affects performance on takeoff and landings? Name 5 things
Air density
Surface winds
Runway surface
Upslope of downslope
Weight
What are the different types of propellers?
Variable pitch - change in air
constant speed - self adjusting
Fixed Pitch - can’t change
Ground adjustable - change on ground
What causes a stall?
Excessive angle of attack
What causes a spin?
A excessive critical angle of attack while applying excessive or insufficient rudder
What is ground effect?
The result of the earth’s surface altering the airflow patterns around the plane. Induced drag decreases and excessive speeds causes floating.
Define moment, C.G, and datum.
Moment - weight of item x’s arm
C.G - the balancing point
Datum - imaginary vertical plane from which all measurements of arm is taken
What is AWOS/ASOS and the purpose?
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)
Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)
- Used to get weather information at non-towered airports.
- Updated each minute
- Can be found in A/FD
How do you get a special flight permit?
Contant Flight Standard District Office (FSDO) for a special flight permit.
When is a radio certification required on a plane?
For international flights
What documents are needed on a airplane?
ARROW
Airworthiness certification w/ valid inspections & AD’s
Registration
Radio Certification
Operator’s manual
Weight & Balance
What type of fuel does the C172 take?
Blue 100 Low Lead
What is Spatial Disorientation?
The conflict between the information given by the instruments, and peripheral vision senses movement.
How can the middle ear be effected in flight?
There are 3 semicircular canals in the ear that sences pitch, yaw, and roll. When it subjected to the different forces of flight, it sends misleading signals called vestibular disorientation producing feelings of instability and motion sickness.
Describe the landing gear system for the C172?
Tricycle type with steerable nose and two main wheels
Shock absorbent
- Spring steel for 2 main landing struts
- Air/oil for nose landing
Main gear wheel is equipped with hydraulic single-disc brake.
What are “Special Flight Permits,” and when are they necessary?
(14 CFR 91.213, 14 CFR 21.197)
A Special Flight Permit may be issued for an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight. These permits are typically issued for the following purpose:
a. Flying an aircraft to a base where repairs, alteration or maintenance are to be performed, or to a point of storage.
b. Delivering or exporting an aircraft.
c. Production flight testing new-production aircraft.
d. Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending danger.
e. Conducting customer demonstration flights in new-production aircraft that have satisfactorily completed production flight tests.
Obtained by FSDO or designated airworthiness representative (DAR).
What is pressure altitude?
The altitude altitude or elevation corrected for non standard pressure and indicated when the altimeter barometric scale is set to 29.92. 29.92 is equivalent to the air pressure at mean sea level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
What are the privileges and limitations applied to a private pilot?
- May not act as pilot-in-command if aircraft is carrying passengers or properly for compensation
- Can not pay less than the share of operating expenses. (fuel, oil, fees, etc)
- May act as PIC of aircraft that is directly incidental to the business. (form point a to b like your car)
- 3.May act as PIC if demonstrating an aircraft in flight to a prospective buyer and private pilot is an aircraft salesman and has at least 200 hours logged flight time.
What is density altitude?
It is the vertical distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which a given density is found. It is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
What type of engine does the C172 have?
Lycoming
Horizontally opposed
160 horsepower, 2700 RPM
Direct drive
Aircooled
Wet sump oil system
Describe the brake system.
- Single-disc, hydraulically-actuated brake on each main landing gear.
- The brakes are connected by hydraulic line to the master cylinder, then to each rudder pedal.
What effect does wind have on aircraft performance? Name 3 things.
Takeoff
Landing
Cruise Flight
How do you recover from a spin?
PARE
Power idle
Ailerons neutral (flaps up)
Rudder opposite of spin
Elevator neutral
What is load factor?
Total load support by the wing divided by the total weight of the plane.
Name 2 factors why load factor is important.
- Overload may cause A/C damage
- increased load factor increases stalling speeds.
How can a pilot change the lift of a aircraft?
By changing either the…
- Airspeed
- Angle of attack
- Flaps
What is carbon monoxide poisoning?
A form of Hypemic Hypoxia where carbon monoxide does not allow oxygen to attach to any of the cells.
What is preventive maintenace?
PM’s
Simple or minor operations & replacements of small standard parts not involving complex operations that any pilot can do.
What is considered Non-regulatory airspace?
- Controlled airspace E
- Uncontrolled Airspace G
- Other airspace
- Special Use Airspace
- warning
- alert
- M.O.A
- controlled firing
What happens if the pitot tube remains clear, but the static port becomes clogged?
VSI - goes to zero
Altimeter - Freezes
Airspeed - looks normal but inaccurate
- At altitudes above block point - airspeed moves slower
- At altitudes below block point - airpseed moves faster.
What info is needed in a pilot logbook?
Proof of flight
Any endorsements
Any flight reviews
What are the different types of drag?
Parasite
- Parasite drag - caused by aircraft surface interference
- Form drag - turbulent wake caused by seperation of airflow from surface structure
- Skin drag - roughness of aircraft surface
Induced
- Induced drag - a by-product of lift. The greater the A.O.A, the more this drag is produced.
What other aircraft needs specific training and an endorsement?
- High altitude airplanes - service 25,000 ft
- Tailwheel airplane.
If a person changes their mailing address. how long do they have to notify the FAA?
30 days
What is adverse yaw?
The increased lift on the side of a plane during a turn also has an increase in drag. This causes the nose of the plane to turn to the side with the most drag.
How does weight affect takeoff & landing performance? Name 4 things.
In order…
- Slower acceleration
- Longer takeoff distance
- Higher liftoff (VR) speed
- Increased drag
What is the height of Class Bravo airspace and its speed limits?
Average height - 10,000 feet
Speed limits
- Unlimited over 10,000 ft
- 250kts inside airspace
- 200 underneath any of its shelfs
What is the angle of incidence?
Angle between longitudinal axis and chord line.
What is the Bernoulli Principle?
As the velocity of a fluid or air increases, its internal pressure decreases.
What is torque effect?
A demostration of Newton’s 3rd law - For every action, there is a an equal and opposite reaction.
Because the propeller is rotating in one direction, it forces the airplane to rotate in the opposite direction.
What is needed to keep a private pilot license current?
- Logged flight review within the past 24 months
- To carry passengers - 3 takeoff and landings within 90 days.
- To fly tail-wheel - 3 takeoff and landing to a FULL STOP within 90 days
- To fly night ( the time between 1hr after sunset and 1hr before sunrise) - 3 takeoff and landing to a FULL STOP within 90 days
When does a registration certification expire?
33ft DUC
30 days after death
3 years for renewal
Foriegn ownership
Transfered
Destroyed
U.S citizenship loss
Cancelled
What is considered Regulatory Airspace?
- Controlled Airspace A,B,C,D
- Special Use Airspace
- Restricted
- Prohibited
Who is responsible for determining the A/C is to be maintained in an airworthy condition?
Owner or Operator
Who is responsible for determining the aircraft is airworthy?
Pilot in Command
What is a high performance airplane and what do you need to be a P.I.C of that airplane?
- An aircraft with 200 or more horsepower
- A one-time endorsement is needed in your log book from your instructor to operate.
What effect does a rear C.G have? Name 3 things.
Lower stall speeds
Higher cruise speeds
Less stable
What effect does a forward C.G have? Name 4 things
Higher stall speed
Slower cruise speed
More stable
Greater back elevator pressure required - longer takeoff roll
What is a METAR and how long is it valid for?
Aviation Routine Weather Report
Issued every hour and only valid for that hour.
What is a T.A.F
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
Issued every 6 hours 4x’s daily. Covers a 5 mile radius.
What is a F.A?
Area Forecast
General weather covering several states issued every 8 hours
Different sections of F.A:
- Header section - valid for 8 hrs
- Precautionary Statement - valid for 12 hrs
- Synopsis - valis for 18hrs
- VFR Weather (12hrs) and Outlook (6hrs) - valid for 18 hrs
What is Hypoxia and its different types?
When the tissue is NOT getting enough oxygen.
- Hypoxic hypoxia - when accending too quickly in altitude (Can’t get O2)
- Hypemic Hypoxia - the blood can’t carry oxygen (Can’t carry O2) Ex: Anemia
- Stagnant Hypoxia - Poor circulation of oxygen (Can’t circulate O2)
- Histoxic Hypoxia - cells don’t accept oxygen (Can’t use O2) Ex: Alchohol, drugs.
Define:
Empty weight
Gross weight
Useful Load
Arm
Empty weight - airframe, engine, all items permanetly installed, hydraulic fluid, unusuable fuel, and undranable oil
Gross weight - Maximum allowable weight
Useful load - weight of pilot & co-pilot, passengers & baggage, Unusable fuel & undranable oil.
Arm - horizontal distance in inches from reference datum line to the C.G of an item.
What is hyperventilation?
The body as TOO MUCH Oxygen
Can be caused when emotional stress increases the breathing rate and depletes the carbon dioxide from the body.
This may:
- Decrease reaction time
- Impair judgement
- Produce a drowsiness feeling
Breathing into a bag or talking outload to increase carbon dioxide is a normal cure.
What is the difference between aircraft…
Category
Class
Type
?
Category - A broad classification. (Airplane, Glider, Balloon etc)
Class - Within the same category having similar characteristics (single engine, multi-engine, etc)
Type - Specific make and models (C172, Cirrus SR22,etc)
What is considered a complex airplane?
A complex airplane has
- Retractable landing gear
- Flaps
- Controllable pitch prop
What is the difference between a Airmet, Sigmet, and Convective Sigmet? How long is each one valid for?
Airmets (AIRman’s METeorological Information) -
- advises of weather that maybe hazardous, other than convective activity, to single engine, other light aircraft, and Visual Flight Rule (VFR) pilots.
- affect an area of at least 3000 square miles
- routinely issued for 6 hour periods. Valid for no more than 6 hours
Sigmets(SIGnificant METeorological Information)
- Severe Icing (not associated with thunderstorms), Severe Turbulence (not associated with thunderstorms), Duststorms and sandstorms lowering visibility to less than three miles
- affect an area of at least 3000 square miles
- has a maximum forecast period valid of 4 hours (6 hours for hurricanes).
Convective Sigmets - severe convective activity, which implies severe turbulence, severe icing, and low-level wind shear. Specifically
- Embedded thunderstorms
- A line of thunderstorms
- Thunderstorms with heavy precipitation affecting 40%+ of an area at least 3,000 square miles
- Surface winds 50+ knots due to severe thunderstorm
- Hail 3/4+ inches in diameter
- Tornadoes
- Issued every hour (at H+55), Valid for 2 hours.
What is HIWAS?
Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS)
- Continuous broadcast of
advisories including summarized
AWW, SIGMET, Convective
SIGMET, CWA, AIRMET, and
urgent PIREP reportsA - RTCC will announce HIWAS update one time (unless emergency)
What are the special use airspaces?
WARM PC
Warning
Alert
Restricted
M.O.A
Prohibited
Controlled firing
What happens if both the pitot tube and drain hole becomes clogged?
Airspeed is REVERSED
Climbing will give the airspeed indicator a FASTER reading
Decending will give the airspeed indicator a SLOWER reading.
What happens if the pitot tube is blocked but the drain hole remains open?
The airspeed drops and reads 0
How does air density affect performance? Name four things.
It effects…
- Lift produced by the wings
- Power engine output
- Propeller efficiency
- Drag
What is a Type Certification?
- Type certification is a regulatory process that the FAA uses to ensure that aircraft manufacturers comply with Federal Airworthiness Regulations.
- To obtain a TC, the manufacturer must demonstrate to the FAA that the aircraft or product being submitted for approval complies with all applicable FARs.
- Only after a aircraft is produced under a type certified design, it is then issued a standard airworthiness certificate
What are the different types of Airmets?
Airmet Sierra - areas of IFR
Airmet Tango - areas of turbulence
Airmet Zulu - areas of icing
Valid for 6 hrs
What are the different types of ailerons?
- Normal
- Freiz
- Differential
What effect does maneuvering speed have on a increase or decrease in weight?
Maneuvering speed (VA) increases with an increase in weight and decreases with a decrease in weight.
What factors affect air density? Name three things.
- Altitude
- Temperature
- Humidity
What factors affects airspeed in the altitude? Name three things.
- Altitude
- Temperature
- Humidity
What is your fuel requirements for VFR flights?
VFR flight requires adequate fuel to reach the first airport of intended landing with enough remaining fuel to fly an additional 30 minutes.
At night, it’s enough fuel to fly to the airport and remain flying an additional 45 minutes. (A prudent pilot will always allow for at least one hour of reserve fuel.)
In this Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, what does TEMPO mean?
SCT030 TEMPO 1923 BKN030
The TEMPO group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, weather, or sky condition which are expected to last for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), and are expected to occur during less than half the time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by a four-digit group giving the beginning hour and ending hour of the time period during which the temporary conditions are expected.
ex: Three thousand scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand broken between 1900Z and 2300Z.
In this Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, what does “FM” mean?
EX: FM1430 OVC020
The FM group is used when a rapid change, usually occuring in less than one hour, in prevailing conditions is expected. Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to more or less a completely new set of prevailing conditions is associated with a synoptic feature passing through the terminal area (cold or warm frontal passage). Appended to the FM indicator is the four-digit hour and minute the change is expected to begin and continues until the next change group or until the end of the current forecast.
A FM group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF report. Each FM group contains all the required elements – wind, visibility, weather, and sky condition. Weather will be omitted in FM groups when it is not significant to aviation. FM groups will not include the contraction NSW.
EX: FM1430 OVC020 - After 1430Z ceiling two thousand overcast
In this Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, what does “BECMG” mean?
EX: OVC012 BECMG 1416 BKN020
The BECMG group is used when a gradual change in conditions is expected over a longer time period, usually two hours. The time period when the change is expected is a four-digit group with the beginning hour and ending hour of the change period which follows the BECMG indicator. The gradual change will occur at an unspecified time within this time period. Only the conditions are carried over from the previous time group.
Example:
OVC012 BECMG 1416 BKN020 - Ceiling one thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change to ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z and 1600Z.
In this Terminal Aerodrome Forecast, what does “051130Z” mean?
EX:
TAF
KOKC 051130Z 051212
Date and Time of Origin: ie. (051130Z)
This element is the UTC date and time the forecast is actually prepared. The format is a two-digit date and four-digit time followed, without a space, by the letter Z. Routine TAFs are prepared and filed approximately one-half hour prior to scheduled issuance times. TAFs are scheduled for issuance foure times daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
Example:
091050Z - Forecast prepared on the ninth day of the month at 1050Z.
Valid Period Date and Time: ie. (051212)
The UTC valid period of the forecast is a two-digit date followed by the two-digit beginning hour and two-digit ending hour. Routine TAFs are valid for 24-hours. Valid periods beginning at 0000Z shall be indicated as 00. Valid periods ending at 0000Z shall be indicated as 24. The 24 indication applies to all time group ending times.
Examples:
- 091212 - Forecast valid from the ninth at 1200Z til the tenth at 1200Z.
- 110024 - Forecast valid from the eleventh at 0000Z till the twelfth at 0000Z.
- 010524 - Amended forecast valid from the first at 0500Z till the second at 0000Z.
What are NOTAMS?
NOTAM, “NOtice To AirMen”,
are notices containing essential flight operation information not known sufficiently in advance to publicize by other means.
Types of NOTAM’s
NOTAM(D): Information that requires wide dissemination and pertains to enroute navigational aids, civil public use landing areas listed in the Airports Facility Directory and aeronautical data related to IFR operations.
FDC: Information that is regulatory in nature pertaining to flight including, but not limited to, changes to charts, procedures, and airspace usage. It includes TFRs.
Notices to Airmen is published every 28 days
Suppose you were cruising at 8,000 ft with temperatures at -1 C and a TAS of 140, how do you find your indicated airspeed?
- Grab E6B and put -1C over 8,000 feet pressure altitude.
- Read outer scale (TAS) of 140 and follow to inner scale (CAS). Should read about 125.
- Then go to POH in the Airspeed Calibration section and find the IAS for the CAS
If forgot to change the altimeter setting from 30.11 to 29.96, what would be your altitude?
Lower by 150 feet.
(30. 11 - 29.96 = 0.15). At the standard pressure lapse rate of 1” Hg = 1,000 feet in altitude, the amount of change equals 150 feet. Each .01 = 10 feet.
* *From High to Low Look out Below**
What is the International Air Distress (IAD) “emergency” frequency? Who monitors it?
121.5 MHz
It is monitored by most air traffic control towers, FSS services, national air traffic control centers, and other flight and emergency services, as well as by many airliners.
What are the Emergency Transponder Squawk Codes? What does 1200 mean?
7500 – Hijack
7600 – Lost Comm (radio failure)
7700 – Emergency
1200 - Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flight, this is the standard code used in North American airspace when no other has been assigned
What are the light gun signals on ground and in flight for:
Steady green
Flashing green
Steady red
Flashing red
Flashing white
Alternating red and green
Aircraft on the Ground
Steady green - Cleared for takeoff
Flashing green - Cleared for taxi
Steady red - STOP
Flashing red - Taxi clear of the runway in use
Flashing white - Return to starting point on airport
Alternating red and green - Exercise Extreme Caution
Aircraft in Flight
Steady green - Cleared to land
Flashing green - Return for landing, followed by steady green at the appropriate time
Steady red - Give way to other aircraft and continue circling
Flashing red - Airport unsafe, do not land
Flashing white - Not applicable
Alternating red and green - Exercise Extreme Caution
What color are the runway lights? When do they change color?
Runway centerline lights are white until the last 3000 ft of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2000 ft and for the last 1000 ft of the runway,
What does ELT stand for and what frequency does it transmitt on?
Emergency locator transmitter 121.5 MHz
What are your VFR cruising altitudes?
Even thousands plus 500 for WEST headings 180 - 359 degrees
Odd thousands plus 500 for EAST headings 360 to 179 degrees
Magnetic courses begin at 3,000 ft AGL to 18,000 MSL
When is a transponder needed?
When in class C, B or A airspace,
above 10,000 feet or
within any 30 nm radius Mode C veil
What services does ATC provide?
sequencing
separation
collision avoidance
What is flight watch and what frequency is it on?
Flight Watch is the common name for Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)
It is limited to:
en route weather updates
collection of pilot weather reports (PIREPs)
The service is available on a single common frequency, 122.0 MHz, to flights operating below Flight Level 180
What regulations apply concerning the operation of an aircraft that has had alterations or repairs which may have substantially affected its operation in flight?
(14 CFR 91.407)
No person may operate or carry passengers in any aircraft that has undergone maintenance, preventative maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration that may have appreciably changed its flight characteristics or substantially affected its operation in flight until an appropriately rated pilot with at least a private pilot certificate
a. Flies the aircraft;
b. Makes an operational check of the maintenance performed or alteration made; and
c. Logs the flight in the aircraft records.
Can a pilot conduct flight operation in an aircraft with known inoperative equipment?
14 CFR 91.213
Yes, under specific conditions. 14 CFR Part 91 describes acceptable methods for the operation of an aircraft with certain inoperative methods for the operation of an aircraft with certain inoperative instruments and equipment that are not essential for safe flight – they are :
a. Operation of aircraft with a Minimum Equipment List (MEL), as authorized by 14 CFR 91.213(a)
b. Operation of aircraft without a MEL under 14 CFR 91.213(d)
What limitations apply to aircraft operations conducted using the deferral provision of 14 CFR 91.213
When inoperative equipment is found during preflight or prior to departure, the decision should be to cancel the flight, obtain maintenance prior to flight, or to defer the item or equipment. Maintenance deferrals are not used for in flight discrepancies. The manufacturer’s AFM/POH procedures are to be used in those situations
What limitations apply to aircraft operations being conducted using MELs?
The use of an MEL for a small, non-turbine-powered airplane operated under Part 91 allows for the deferral of inoperative items or equipment. The FAA considers an approved MEL to be a supplemental type certificate (STC) issued to an aircraft by serial number and registration number. Once an operator requests an MEL, and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the FAA, then the MEL becomes mandatory for that airplane. All maintenance deferrals must be done in accordance with the MEL and the operator-generated procedures document.
What are the procedures to follow when using 14 CFR 91.213(d) for deferral of inoperative equipment?
The pilot determines whether the inoperative equipment is required by type design, the regulations, or Ads. If the inoperative item is not required, and the airplane can be safely operated without it, the deferral may be made. Then the pilot removes or deactivates the inoperative item, and places an INOPERATIVE placard near the appropriate switch, control, or indicator.
If deactivation or removal involves maintenance (removal always will), it must be accomplished by certificated maintenance personnel. For example, if the position lights (installed equipment) were discovered to be inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would follow the requirements of section 91.213(d).
If an aircraft has been on a schedule of inspection every 100 hours, under what condition may it continue to operate beyond the 100 hours without a new inspection?
(14 CFR 91.409)
The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.
What is the difference between an annual inspection and a 100-hour inspection?
(14 CFR Part 43)
No difference exist when comparing the content of an annual inspection with that of a 100-hour inspection. The difference is who is allowed to perform these inspections. Only an A&P mechanic with an Inspection Authorization can perform an annual inspection. 100-hour inspections may be performed by any A&P mechanic (no IA required).
What are some of the responsibilities an aircraft owner has pertaining to aircraft documents, maintenance and inspections of their aircraft?
Aircraft owners must:
a. Have a current Airworthiness Certificate and Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.
b. Maintain the aircraft in an airworthy condition including compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives.
c. Ensure maintenance is properly recorded.
d. Keep abreast of current regulations concerning the operation of that aircraft.
e. Notify the FAA Civil Aviation Registry immediately of any change of permanent mailing address, or of the sale or export of the aircraft, or of the loss of citizenship.
f. Have a current FCC radio station license if equipped with radios, including emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if operated outside of the United States.
State the general characteristics in regard to the flow of air around high and low pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere
Low Pressure – inward, upward, and counterclockwise
High Pressure – outward, downward, and clockwise
What is a “trough”?
A trough (also called a trough line) is an elongated area of relatively low atmosphere pressure. At the surface when air converges into a low, it cannot go outward against the pressure gradient, nor can it go downward into the ground; it must go upward. Therefore, a low or trough is an area of rising air. Rising air is conductive to cloudiness and precipitation; hence he general association of low pressure and bad weather.
What is a “Ridge”?
A ridge (also called a ridge line) is an elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure. Air moving out of a high or ridge depletes the quantity of air; therefore, these are areas of descending air. Descending air favors dissipation of cloudiness; hence the association of high pressure and good weather.
What are the standard temperature and pressure values for sea level?
15 °C and 29.92” Hg
What are “isobars”?
An isobar is a line on a weather chart which connects areas of equal or constant barometric pressure.
If the isobars are relatively close together on a surface weather chart or a constant pressure chart, what information will this provide?
The spacing of isobars on these charts defines how steep or shallow a pressure gradient is. When isobars are spaced very close together, a steep pressure gradient exists which indicates higher wind speeds. A shallow pressure gradient (isobars not close together) usually means wind speeds will be less.
What causes the winds aloft to flow parallel to the isobars?
The Coriolis force.
Why do surface winds generally flow across the isobars at an angle?
Surface friction.
At what rate does atmospheric pressure decrease with an increase in altitude?
1” Hg per 1,000 feet.
When temperature and dew point are close together (within 5 °), what type of weather is likely?
Visible moisture in the form of clouds, dew, or fog. Also, these are ideal conditions for carburetor icing.
What factor primarily determines the type and vertical extent of clouds?
The stability of the atmosphere.
- How do you determine the stability of the atmosphere?
By observing the actual lapse rate and comparing it to the standard lapse rate of 3.5 ° F per 1,000 feet. The “K” index of a stability chart is the primary means of determining stability. In general, stable air cools at a rate less than the standard lapse rate with altitude, and unstable air cools at a rate that is greater than the standard lapse rate.
At what altitude above the surface would the pilot expect the bases of cumuliform clouds if the surface temperature is 82 ° and the dew point is 62 °?
You can estimate the height of cumuliform cloud bases using surface temperature/dew point spread. Unsaturated air in a convective current cools at about 5.4 ° F (3.0 ° C) per 1,000 feet; dew point decreases at about 1 ° F (5/9 ° C). Thus, in a convective current, temperature and dew point converge at about 4.4 ° F (2.5 ° C) per 1,000 feet. You can get a quick estimate of a convective cloud base in thousands of feet by rounding the values and dividing into the spread. When using Fahrenheit, divide by 4 and multiply by 1,000. This method of estimating is reliable only with instability, clouds and during the warmer part of the day.
(Temperature – Dew point) / 4 * 1,000 = Base of clouds
82-62=20
20/4=5
5*1000=5000 feet AGL
What will the freezing level be if the field elevation is 1,000 feet and the temperature at the surface is 15 ° C?
The freezing level (0 ° C) can be estimated by subtracting 2 ° C per 1,000 feet (average lapse rate) from 15 ° C and then adding the result to the field elevation. For this example the freezing level will be at 8,5000 MSL.
What conditions are necessary for structural icing to occur?
Visible moisture and below freezing temperatures at the point moisture strikes the aircraft
What are the two main types of icing?
Structural and Induction
• Induction Icing: Icing in the power plant
– Carburetor Icing
• Air is cooled with adiabatic expansion
and endothermic evaporation of the fuel.
• Cooled below 0oC and Ice forms
• Carburetor icing is 51% of all icing accidents
• Can occur in SKC with OAT well above freezing
• Check your POH for when carburetor heat is needed
• Carb Heat reduces power, but isbetter than no power
– Jet Engine: Can develop ice in taxi, takeoff, & climb
Structural Icing: Icing on the Airframe (The outside of the airplane)
–Skin temperature is 0oC or less
–Decrease lift efficiency of the wings
–Clogs the pitot-static system
–Bad altitude, VSI, and KIAS due to
clogged Pitot
–Adds weight to plane: may be several
hundred pounds of ice.
Name four types of structural ice
Clear ice – forms when large drops strike the aircraft surface and slowly freeze.
Rime ice – small drops strike the aircraft and freeze rapidly.
Mixed ice – combination of above; super cooled water drops varying in size.
Frost – ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when temperature and dew point are below freezing.
What action is recommended if you inadvertently encounter icing conditions?
Change course and/or altitude; usually, climb to a higher altitude, if possible.
Is frost considered to be hazardous to flight? Why?
Yes, because while frost does not change the basic aerodynamic shape of the wing, the roughness of its surface spoils the smooth flow of air, thus causing a slowing of airflow. This slowing of the flow of air causes early airflow separation, resulting in a loss of lift. Even a small amount of frost on airfoils may prevent an aircraft from becoming airborne at normal takeoff speed. It is also possible that, once airborne, an aircraft could have insufficient margin of airspeed above stall so that moderate gusts or turning flight could produce incipient or complete stalling.
What factors must be present for a thunderstorm to form?
A source of lift (heating, fast-moving front)
Unstable air (nonstandard lapse rate)
High moisture content (temperature / dew point close)
What are the three stages of a thunderstorm?
- *Cumulus Stage** – Updrafts cause raindrops to increase in size.
- *Mature Stage** – Rain at earth’s surface; it falls through or immediately beside the updrafts; lightning; perhaps roll clouds.
- *Dissipating stage** – Downdrafts and rain begin to dissipate.
What is “temperature inversion”?
An inversion is an increase in temperature with height – a reversal of the normal decrease with height. An inversion aloft permits warm rain to fall through cold air below. Temperature in the cold air can be critical to icing. A ground-based inversion favors poor visibility by trapping fog, smoke, and other restrictions into low levels of the atmosphere. The air is stable, with little or no turbulence.
State two basic ways that fog may form.
a. Cool air to the dew point
b. Adding moisture to the air
Name several types of fog.
a. Radiation fog
b. Advection fog
c. Upslope fog
d. Precipitation –induced fog
e. Ice fog
What causes radiation fog to form?
The ground cools the adjacent air to the dew point on calm, clear nights.
What is advection fog, and where is it most likely to form?
Advection fog results from the transport of warm humid air over a cold surface. A pilot can expect advection fog to form primarily along coastal areas during the winter. Unlike radiation fog, it may occur with winds, cloudy skies, over a wide geographic area, and at any time of the day or night.
What is upslope fog?
Upslope fog forms as a result of moist, stable air being cooled adiabatically as it moves up sloping terrain. Once the upslope wind ceases, the fog dissipates. Upslope fog is often quite dense and extends to high altitudes.
Define the term “ wind shear,” and state the areas in which it is likely to occur.
Wind shear is defines as the rate of change of wind velocity (direction and / or speed) per unit distance; conventionally expressed as vertical or horizontal wind shear. It may occur at any level in the atmosphere but three areas are of special concern
Wind Shear with a low-level temperature inversion.
Wind Shear in a frontal zone or thunderstorm.
Clear air turbulence (CAT) at high levels associated with a jet stream or strong circulation.
Why is wind shear an operational concern to pilots?
Wind shear is an operational concern because unexpected changes in wind speed and direction can be potentially very hazardous to aircraft operations at low altitudes on approach to and departing from airports.
What is the primary means of obtaining a weather briefing?
The primary source is an individual briefing obtained from a briefer at the AFSS/FSS. These briefings, which are tailored to your specific flight, are available 24 hours a day through the use of the toll-free number (1-800-WX BRIEF).
What are some examples of other sources of weather information?
Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) (AFSS)
Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB)
Telephone Access to TWEB (TEL-TWEB)
Weather and aeronautical information from numerous private industry sources
The Direct User Access System (DUATS)
Where can you find a listing of FSS and weather information numbers?
Numbers for these services can be found in the Airport / Facility Directory under the “FAA and NWS Telephone Numbers” section. They are also listed in the U.S. Government section of the local telephone directory.
Define Abbreviated Briefing
Request when you need information t supplement mass disseminated data, update a previous briefing, or when you need only one or two items.
Define Outlook Briefing
Request whenever your proposed time of departure is six or more hours form the time of the briefing; for planning purpose only.
Define In flight Briefing
Request when needed to update a preflight briefing
What pertinent information should a weather briefing include?
Adverse Conditions
VFR Flight Not Recommended
Synopsis
Current Conditions
En route Forecast
Destination Forecast
Winds Aloft
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
ATC Delay
Pilots may obtain the following from AFSS/FSS briefers upon request: Information on MRTs and MOAs, a review of printed NOTAM publications, approximate density altitude information, information on air traffic services and rules, customs / immigration procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue, LORAN, NOTAM, GPS RAIM availability, and other assistance as required.
What is EFAS ?
En route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) is a service specifically designed to provide en route aircraft with timely and meaningful weather advisories pertinent to the type of flight intended, route of flight, and altitude. In conjunction with this service, EFAS is also a central collection and distribution point for pilot reported weather information (PIREPs). EFAS provides for communications capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet above ground; level to 17,5000 feet MSL on a common frequency of 122.0 MHz. It is also known as “Flight Watch.”
What is HIWAS?
Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) is a continuous broadcast of in-flight weather advisories including summarized Aviation Weather Warnings, SIGMETs, Convective SIGMETs, Center Weather Advisories, AIRMETs, and urgent PIREPs. HIWAS is an additional source of hazardous weather information which makes this data available on a continuous basis.
What is a METAR?
METAR, or Aviation Routine Weather Report : An hourly surface observation of conditions observed at an airport.
Describe the basic elements of a METAR.
Example : METAR KLAX 140651Z AUTO 00000KT ISM R35L/4500V6000FT – RA BR BKN030 10/10 A2990 RMK AO2
Type of reports – the METAR, and the SPECI (aviation special weather report).
ICAO Station identifier – 4-letter station identifiers; in the conterminous U.S., the 3-letter identifier is prefixed with K.
Date and time of report – a 6-digit date/time group appended with Z (UTC). First two digits are the date, then two for the hour, and the two for minutes.
Modifier (as required) – if used, the modifier AUTO identifies the report as an automated weather report with no human intervention. If AUTO is shown in the body of the report, AO1 or AO2 will be encoded in the remarks section to indicate the type of precipitation sensor used at the station.
Wind – 5-digit group (6 digits if speed is over 99 knots); first three digits = wind direction, in tens of degrees referenced to true north. Directions less than 100 degrees are preceded with a zero; next two digits are the average speed in knots, measured or estimated (or, if over 99 knots, the next three digits).
Visibility : prevailing visibility – statue miles, space, fractions of statue miles ( as needed), and the letters SM.
Runway visual range (RVR), as required.
Weather phenomena – broken into two categories: qualifiers, and weather phenomena.
Sky condition – amount/height/type (as required) or indefinite ceiling/height (vertical visibility).
Temperature/dew point group – 2-digit format in whole degrees Celsius, separated by a solidus(/). Temperature below zero are prefixed with M.
Altimeter – 4-digit format representing tens, units, tenths, and hundredths of inches of mercury prefixed with A. The decimal point is not reported or stated.
Remarks (RMK), as required – operational significant weather phenomena, location of phenomena, beginning and ending times, direction of movement.
Describe several types of weather observing programs available.
Manual Observations – reports made from airport locations staffed by FAA or NES personnel.
AWOS – Automated Weather Observing System; consists of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice sub-system, and a transmitter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data directly to the pilot. Observations will include the prefix AUTO in data.
AWOS Broadcasts – computer-generated voice is used to automate the broadcast of minute-by-minute weather observations.
ASOS – Automated Surface Observing System; the primary7 U.S. surface weather observing system. Up to 993 systems installed throughout the U.S. providing minute-by-minute observations generating METARs and other aviation weather information. Transmitted over a discrete VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. ASOS included the prefix “AUTO” in the report data.
What are PIREPs (UA), and where are they usually found?
ese reports contain information concerning weather as observed by pilots en route. Required elements for all PIREPs are message type, location, time (in UTC), flight level (altitudes are MSL), type of aircraft, and at least one weather element encountered (visibility in SM, distances in NM). A PIREP (abbreviation for “Pilot Reports”) is usually transmitted as an individual report but can be appended to a surface aviation weather report or placed into collectives. Also referred to in code reported as “UA”.
What are Radar Weather Reports (SD)?
General areas of precipitation, including rain, snow, and thunderstorms, can be observed by radar. The radar weather report (SD) includes the type, intensity, and location of the echo top of the precipitation. All heights are reported above MSL. Radar stations report each hour at H+35. SDs should be used along with METARs, satellite photos, and forecasts when planning a flight, to help in thunderstorm area avoidance. But once airborne, depend on Flight Watch, which has the capability to display current radar images, airborne radar, or visual sighting to evade individual storms.
What are Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
An Aviation Terminal Forecasts (TAF) is a concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions within a 5-SM radius from the center of an airport’s runway complex during a 24-hour time period. The TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports, in the following format:
Type of reports – a routine forecast (TAF); and an amended forecast, TAF AMD
ICAO station identifier – 4-letter station identifiers.
Date and time of origin – the date and UTC the forecast is actually prepared; 2-digit date, and 4-digit time, (no space) followed by the letter Z.
Valid period date and time – valid forecast period is a 2-sigit date followed by the 2-digit beginning and 2-digit ending hours in UTC. Routine TAFs are valid for 24 hours and are issued four times daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
Forecasts – wind, significant weather, sky condition, non-convective low-level wind shear, change indicators, probability.
What is an Aviation Area Forecast (FA)?
A forecast of visual meteorological conditions (VMC), clouds, and general weather conditions over an area the size of several states. To understand the complete weather picture, the FA must be used along with in flight weather advisories to determine forecast en route weather and to interpolate conditions at airports where no TAFs are issued. FAs are issued 3 times a day by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) for each of the 6 areas in the contiguous 48 states. The weather forecast office (WFO) in Honolulu issues FAs for Hawaii. The Alaska Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU) in Anchorage, Alaska produces the FA for the entire state of Alaska. There are also two specialized FAs, one for the Gulf of Mexico, and one for international airspace.
What information is provided by an Aviation Area Forecast (FA)?
a. Communications and product header section – identifies the office from which the FA is issued, the date and time of issue, the product name, the valid times and the states and/or areas covered by the FA.
b. Precautionary statement section – between the communications/products headers and the body of the forecast are three precautionary statements which are in all Area Forecasts:
SEE AIRMET SIERRA FOR IFT CONDITIONS AND MTNOBSC
This alerts user that IFR conditions and/or mountain obscurement may be occurring or may be forecast to occur in a portion of the FA area.
TSTMS IMPLY PSBL SVR OR GTR TURBC SVR ICG LLWS AND IFR CONDS
A reminder of the hazards existing in all thunderstorms.
NON MSL HGTS ARE DENOTED BY AGL OR CIG
This alerts user that heights, for the most part, are heights above sea level. All heights are in hundreds of feet. The tops of clouds, turbulence, icing and freezing level heights are always MSL. Heights above ground level are noted in either of the following ways: ceilings by definition are above ground; therefore, the contraction “CIG” indicates above ground. The contraction “AGL” means above ground level; thus, if the contraction “AGL” or “CIG” is not denoted, height is automatically above MSL.
c. Synopsis section – a brief summary of the location and movements of fronts, pressure systems, and circulation patterns for an 18-hour period. References to low ceilings and/or visibilities, strong winds, or any other phenomena the forecaster considers useful, may also be included.
d. VFR Clouds and Weather section – contains a 12-hour specific forecast, followed by a six-hour (18-hour in Alaska) categorical outlook giving a total forecast period of 18 hours (30 hours in Alaska). The VFR CLDS/WX section is usually several paragraphs long. The breakdown may be by states or by well-known geographical areas. The specific forecast section gives a general description of clouds and weather which cover an area greater than 3,000 square miles and is significant to VFR flight operations.
What are in flight Aviation Weather Advisories (WST,WS,WA)?
In flight aviation weather advisories are forecasts to advise en route aircraft of development of potentially hazardous weather, in 3 types: the SIGMET, AIRMET, and Convective SIGMET. All heights are referenced MSL, except in the case of ceilings CIG, which indicate AGL.
What is a Convective SIGMET?
Convective SIGMETs (WST) implies severe or greater turbulence, severe icing and low-level wind shear. They may be issued for any convective simulation which the forecaster feels is hazardous to all categories of aircraft. Convective SIGMET bulletins are issued for the Eastern (E), Central ( C ) and Western (W) united States (Convective SIGMETs are not issued for Alaska or Hawaii). Bulletins are issued hourly at H+55. Special bulletins are issued at any time as required and updated at H+55. The text of the bulletin consists of either an observation and a forecast, or just a forecast. The forecast is valid for up to 2 hours
a. Severe thunderstorm due to:
• Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots.
• Hail at the surface greater than or equal to ¾ inches in diameter.
• Tornadoes
b. Embedded thunderstorms
c. A line of thunderstorms
d. Thunderstorms producing greater than or equal to heavy precipitation that affects 40% or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles.
What is an AIRMET (WA)?
Advisories of significant weather phenomena that describe conditions at intensities lower than those which require the issuance of SIGMETs, intended for use by all pilots in the preflight and en route phase of flight to enhance safety. AIRMET Bulletins are issued every 6 hours beginning at 0145 UTC during Central Daylight Time and at 0245 UTC during Central Standard Time. Unscheduled updates and corrections are issued as necessary.
Each AIRMET Bulletin includes an outlook for conditions expected after the AIRMET valid period. AIRMETs contain details about IFR, extensive mountain obscuration, turbulence, strong surface wins, icing, and freezing levels.
What is a TWEB?
NWS offices prepare transcribed weather broadcast (TWEB) text products for the contiguous U.S., including synopsis and forecast for more than 200 routes and local vicinities. TWEB products are valid for 12 hours and are issued 4 times a day at 0200Z, 0800Z, 1400Z, and 2000Z in a variety of sources (TIBS, PATWAS, and more).
A TWEB route forecast or vicinity forecast will not be issued if the TAF for that airport has not been issued. A TWEB route forecast is for a 50-NM wide corridor along a line connecting the end points of the route. A TWEB local vicinity forecast covers an area with a radius of 50 NM. These forecasts describe sustained surface winds (25 knots or greater), visibility, weather and obscuration to vision, sky conditions (coverage and ceiling/cloud heights), mountain obscurement, and nonconvective low-level wind shear.
What is a Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FD)?
Winds and temperature aloft are forecasted for specific locations in the contiguous U.S., and also prepared for a network of locations in Alaska and Hawaii. Forecasts are made twice daily based on the 00Z and 12Z radiosonde data for use during specific time intervals. FDs contain the following characteristics:
a. The valid period the FD may be used, and annotation “TEMPS NEG ABV 24000”. Since temperatures above 24,000 feet are always negative, the minus sign is omitted.
b. “FT” indicates the levels of the wind and temperature data. Through 12,000, feet the levels are true altitude. From 18,000 feet and above, the levels are pressure altitude.
c. A 4-digit group shows wind direction in tens of degrees, and the second 2 digits are the wind speed in knots. A 6-digit group included forecast temperatures in degrees Celsius.
d. No winds are forecasted within 1,500 feet of station elevation.
e. No temperatures are forecasted for any level within 2,500 feet of station elevation.
f. If a wind direction is coded between 51 and 86, the wind speed is 100 knots or greater. For example, winds forecast for 39,000 feet indicate “731960”. To decode, subtract 50 from the wind direction and add 100 knots to the wind speed. Wind direction is from 230 degrees (73-50=23); speed is 119 knots (100+19=119) and temperature is -60°C.
g. If the wind speed is forecasted to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots. For example, “7799” is decoded as 270 degrees at 199 knots or greater.
h. When the forecast speed is less than 5 knots, the coded group is “9900” which means, “Light and Variable”.
What valuable information can be determined form Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts (FD)?
Most favorable altitude – based on winds and direction of flight.
Areas of possible icing – by noting air temperatures of +2°C to -20°C.
Temperature inversions.
Turbulence – by observing abrupt changes in wind direction and speed at different altitudes.
What are Center Weather Advisories (CWA)?
A Center Weather Advisory (CWA) is an aviation warning for use by aircrews to anticipate and avoid adverse weather conditions in the en route and terminal environments. The CWA is not a flight planning product; instead it reflects current conditions expected at the time of issuance and/or is a short-range forecast for conditions expected to begin within 2 hours of issuance. CWAs are valid for a maximum of 2 hours. If conditions are expected to continue beyond the 2-hour valid period, a statement will be included in the CWA.
What is a Convective Outlook (AC)?
A national forecast of thunderstorm, in 2 parts: Day 1 Convective Outlook (first 24 hours), and Day 2 Convection Outlook (next 24 hours). Describe areas in which there is a slight, moderate, or high risk of severe thunderstorms, as well as areas of general (non-severe ) thunderstorms. The times of issuance for Day 1 are 0600Z, 1300Z, 1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z. The initial Day 2 issuance is at 0830Z during standard time and 0730Z during daylight time, updated at 1730Z. The AC is a flight planning tool used to avoid thunderstorms.
Give some examples of current weather charts available at the FSS or NWSO used in flight planning.
Surface Analysis Chart.
Weather Depiction Chart
Radar Summary Chart
Significant Weather Prognostic Chart
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart
Composite Moisture Stability Chart
Convective Outlook Chart
Constant Pressure Analysis Chart
Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport and Dispersion Chart
What is a Surface Analysis Chart?
This is a computer-prepared chart that covers the contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. The chart is transmitted every three hours. The surface analysis chart provides a ready means of locating pressure systems and fronts. It also gives an overview of winds, temperatures and dew point temperatures at chart time. When using the chart, keep in mind that weather moves and conditions change. Using the surface analysis chart in conjunction with other information gives a more complete weather picture.
What information dies a Weather Depiction Chart provide?
The weather depiction chart is computer-generated (with a weather observer’s analysis of fronts) from METAR reports. This chart gives a broad overview of the observed flying category conditions at the valid time of the chart. The chart begins at 01Z each day, is transmitted at three-hour intervals, and is valid at the time of the plotted data. The plotted data for each station area are: total sky cover, cloud height or ceiling, weather and obstructions to vision and visibilities. The weather depiction chart is an ideal place to begin in preparing for a weather briefing and flight planning. From this chart one can get a “bird’s-eye” view of areas of favorable and adverse weather conditions at chart time.
Define the terms : IFR, MVFR and VFR.
IFR : Ceilings less than 1,000 and/or visibilities less than 3 miles (Instrument Flight Rules)
MVFR: Marginal VFR) Ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 feet inclusive and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive
VFR: No ceiling, or ceiling greater than 3,000 and visibility greater than 5 miles (Visual Flight Rules)
What are Radar Summary Charts?
Computer-generated graphical display of a collection of automated radar weather reports (SDs). The chart displays areas of precipitation as well as information about type, intensity, configuration, coverage, echo top, and cell movement of precipitation. Severe weather watches are plotted if they are in effect when the chart is valid. The chart is available hourly with a valid time of 35 minutes past each hour.
This chart aids in preflight planning by identifying general areas and movement of precipitation and/or thunderstorms. Displays drop or ice particles of precipitation size only; it does not display clouds and fog. Therefore, since the absence of echoes does not guarantee clear weather, and cloud tops will most likely be higher than the tops of the precipitation echoes detected by radar, the radar summary chart must be used along with other charts, reports, and forecasts for best effectiveness.
What are Significant Weather Prognostic Charts?
Called “Progs”, these charts portray forecasts of selected weather conditions at specified valid times (12,24,36 and 48 hour progs). Each valid time is the time at which the forecast conditions are expected to occur, made from a comprehensive set of observed weather conditions. The observed conditions are extended forward in time and become forecasts by considering atmospheric and environmental processes. Forecast information for the surface to 24,000 feet is provided by the low-level significant weather progchart. Forecast information from above 24,000 to 60,000 feet is provided by the high-level significant weather prog chart.
Describe a U.S. Low-Level Significant Weather Prog Chart.
It is a “Day One” forecast of significant weather for the conterminous U.S., pertaining to the layer from surface to FL240 (400mb). With two forecast periods, 12 hours and 24 hours, the chart is composed of four panels. The two lower panels depict the 12- and 24-hour surface progs, and the two upper panels depict the 12- and 24-hour significant weather progs. Issued four times a day at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z. Covered are forecast positions and characteristics of pressure systems, fronts, and precipitation. Much insight can be gained by evaluating the individual fields of pressure patterns, fronts, precipitation, weather flying categories, freezing levels, and turbulence displayed on the chart.
What is a Composite Moisture Stability Chart?
This chart depicts areas forecast to have thunderstorms, and is presented in two panels. The left-hand panel is the Day 1 Convective Outlook, and the right-hand panel is the Day 2 Convective Outlook. “Day 1” outlines areas in the continental U.S. where thunderstorms are forecasted during that period. It is issued five times daily (0600Z, 1300Z, 1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z) and all issuances are valid till 12Z the following day. The outlook issued qualifies the level of risk (i.e., SLGT, MDT, HIGH) as well as the areas of general thunderstorms.
The Day 2 Convective Outlook contains the same information as the Day 1 chart, and is issued twice a day (0830Z and 1730Z) in a period from 12Z the following day to 12Z the next day.
What is a Convective Outlook Chart?
This chart depicts areas forecast to have thunderstorms, and is presented in two panels. The left-hand panel is the Day 1 Convective Outlook, and the right-hand panel is the Day 2 Convective Outlook. “Day 1” outlines areas in the continental U.S. where thunderstorms are forecasted during that period. It is issued five times daily (0600Z, 1300Z, 1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z) and all issuances are valid till 12Z the following day. The outlook issued qualifies the level of risk (i.e., SLGT, MDT, HIGH) as well as the areas of general thunderstorms.
The Day 2 Convective Outlook contains the same information as the Day 1 chart, and is issued twice a day (0830Z and 1730Z) in a period from 12Z the following day to 12Z the next day.
What are Constant Pressure Analysis Charts?
Any surface of equal pressure in the atmosphere is constant pressure surface. A constant pressure analysis chart is an upper air weather map where all information depicted is at the specified pressure of the chart. From these charts, a pilot can approximate the observed air temperature, wind, and temperature-dew point spread along the proposed route. They also depict highs, lows, troughs, and ridges aloft by the height contour patterns resembling isobars on a surface map. Twice daily, six computer-prepared constant pressure charts are transmitted by facsimile for six pressure levels:
850 mb …………………5,000 ft
700mb………………..10,000 ft
500 mb……………….18,000 ft
300 mb……………….30,000 ft
250 mb……………….34,000 ft
200 mb……………….39,000 ft
Describe the Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport and Dispersion Chart.
This VAFTAD chart presents the relative concentrations of ash following a volcanic eruption for three layers of the atmosphere in addition to a composite of ash concentration through the atmosphere. The chart focuses on hazards to aircraft flight operations caused by volcanic eruption with an emphasis on the ash cloud location in time and space. It used National Centers for Environmental Prediction forecast data to determine the location of ash concentrations over 6-hour and 12-hour intervals. The chart is strictly for advanced flight planning purposes. It is not intended to take the place of SIGMETs regarding volcanic eruptions and ash.
What is the “angle of incidence”?
The angle of incidence is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the chord of the wing. It is measured by the angle at which the wing is attached to the fuselage. The angle of incidence is fixed and cannot be changed by the pilot.
What is the “angle of attack”?
The angle of attack is the angle between the wing chord line and the direction of the relative wind; it can be changed by the pilot.
What is “Torque effect”?
Torque effect involves Newton’s Third Law of Physics – for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Applied to the airplane, this means that as the internal engine parts and the propeller are revolving in one direction, an equal force is trying to rotate the airplane in the opposite direction. It is greatest when at low air speeds with high power settings and a high angle of attack.
What is “centrifugal force”?
Centrifugal force is the “equal and opposite reaction” of the airplane to the change in direction, and it acts “equal and opposite” to the horizontal component of lift.
What type of fuel system does your aircraft have?
Name the 7 basic steps of the fuel flow.
The fuel system is a “gravity feed” system. Using gravity, the fuel flows from two wing fuel tanks to a fuel shutoff valve which, in the “on” position, allows fuel to flow through a strainer and then to the carburetor. From there, the fuel is mixed with air and then flows into the cylinders through the intake manifold tubes.
Fuel Tanks
Fuel Selector Valve
Fuel Reservoir Tank
Auxiliary Fuel Pump (Switch)
Fuel Shutoff Valve (knob)
Fuel Strainer
FCU
What does the ammeter indicate?
The ammeter indicates the flow of current, in amperes, from the alternator to the battery or from the battery to the electrical system. With the engine running and master switch on, the ammeter will indicate the charging rate to the battery. If the alternator has gone off-line and is no longer functioning, or the electrical load exceeds the output of the alternator, the ammeter indicates the discharge rate of the battery.
What causes “carburetor icing”, and what are the first indications of its presence?
The vaporization of fuel, combined with the expansion of air as it passes through the carburetor, causes a sudden cooling of the mixture. The temperature of the air passing through the carburetor may drop as much as 60°F within a fraction of a second. Water vapor is squeezed only by this cooling, and if the temperature in the carburetor reaches 32°F or below, the moisture will be deposited as frost or ice inside the carburetor. For airplanes with a fixed-pitch propeller, the first indication of carburetor icing is loss of RPM. For airplanes with controllable-pitch (constant-speed) propellers, the first indication is usually a drop in manifold pressure.
What method is used to determine that carburetor ice has been eliminated?
When heat is first applied, there will be a drop in RPM in airplanes equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller; there will be a drop in manifold pressure in airplanes equipped with a controllable-pitch propeller. If ice is present there will be a rise in RPM or manifold pressure after the initial drop (often accompanied by intermittent engine roughness); and then, when the carburetor heat is turned “off”, the RPM or manifold pressure will rise to a setting greater than that before application of heat. The engine should run more smoothly after the ice has been removed.
What action should be taken if detonation is suspected?
Corrective action for detonation may be accomplished by adjusting any of the engine controls which will reduce both temperature and pressure of the fuel air charge.
a. Reduce power.
b. Reduce the climb rate for better cooling
c. Enrich the fuel/air mixture.
d. Open cowl flaps if available.
Also, ensure that the airplane has been serviced with the proper grade of fuel.
What action should be taken if pre-ignition is suspected?
Corrective actions for pre-ignition include any type of engine operation which would promote cooling such as:
a. Reduce power.
b. Reduce the climb rte of better cooling.
c. Enrich the fuel / air mixture.
d. Open cowl flaps if available.
Interpret the following ammeter indications.
Ammeter indicates a right deflection (positive).
- After starting
- During flight
After starting – Power from the battery used for starting is being replenished by the alternator; or, if a full-scale charge is indicated for more than 1 minute, the starter is still engaged and a shutdown is indicated.
During flight – A faulty voltage regulator is causing the alternator to overcharge the battery. Reset the system and if the condition continues, terminate the flight as soon as possible.
Interpret the following ammeter indications.
Ammeter indicates a left deflection (negative).
- After starting
- During flight
After starting – It is normal during start. At other times this indicates the alternator is not functioning or an overload condition exists in the system. The battery is not receiving a charge.
During flight – The alternator is not functioning or an overload exists in the system. The battery is not receiving a charge. Possible causes: the master switch was accidentally shut off, or the alternator circuit breaker tripped.
What action should be taken if the ammeter indicates a continuous discharge while in flight?
The alternate has quit producing a charge, so the alternator circuit breaker should be checked and reset if necessary. If this does not correct the problem, the following should be accomplished:
a. The alternator should be turned off: pull the circuit breaker (the field circuit will continue to draw power from the battery).
b. All electrical equipment not essential to flight should be turned off (the battery is now the only source of electrical power).
c. The flight should be terminated and a landing made as soon as possible.
What action should be taken if the ammeter indicates a continuous charge while in flight (more than two needle widths)?
If a continuous excessive rate of charge were allowed for any extended period of time, the battery would overheat and evaporate the electrolyte at an excessive rate. A possible explosion of the battery could be adversely affected by higher than normal voltage. Protection is provided by an over voltage sensor which will shut the alternator down if an excessive voltage is detected. If this should occur the following should be done:
a. The alternator should be turned off; pull the circuit breaker (the field circuit will continue to draw power from the battery).
b. All electrical equipment not essential to flight should be turned off (the battery is now the only source of electrical power).
c. The flight should be terminated and a landing made as soon as possible.
During a cross-country flight you notice that the oil pressure is low, but the oil temperature is normal. What is the problem and what action should be taken?
A low oil pressure in flight could be the result of any one of several problems, the most common being that of insufficient oil. If the oil temperature continues to remain normal, a clogged oil pressure relief valve or an oil pressure gauge malfunction could be the culprit. In any case, a landing at the nearest airport is advisable to check for the cause of trouble.
What procedures should be followed concerning a partial loss of power in flight?
If a partial loss of power occurs, the first priority is to establish and maintain a suitable airspeed (best glide airspeed if necessary). Then, select an emergency landing area and remain within gliding distance. As time allows, attempt to determine the cause and correct it.
Complete the following checklist:
Airspeed……………………………….75 KIAS
Fuel Pump…………………………….On
Mixture………………………………….Rich
Carb Heat……………………………..On
Primer…………………………………..In and Locked N/A
Fuel Selector…………………………Switch Tanks
Engine Gauges……………………..Check
If Power is Restored
Fuel Pump……………………………..Off
If Power is Not Restored
Ignition Switch……………………….L.R. Then Both
Throttle & Mixture…………………..Different Settings
Fuel Selector…………………………Opposite Tanks
What procedures should be followed if an engine fire develops in flight?
In the event of an engine fire in flight, the following procedures should be used:
Mixture…………………………………Idle Cut off
Fuel Shutoff Valve………………..Off (Pull Full Out)
Aux Fuel Pump Switch………….Off
Master Switch……………………….Off
Cabin Heat and Air………………..Off
Airspeed……………………………….100 KIAS
Throttle…………………………………Closed
Forced Landing……………………..Execute
What procedures should be followed if an engine fire develops on the ground during starting AND the engine starts?
Ignition…………………………………………Continue Cracking
Throttle (Couple of minutes)………….1800 RPM
Engine………………………………………….Shut Down
What procedures should be followed if an engine fire develops on the ground during starting AND the engine DOES NOT start?
Ignition………………………………………..Continue Cranking
Throttle………………………………………..Full Open
Mixture………………………………………..Idle Cut Off
Fuel Shutoff Valve…………………………Off (Pull Full Out)
Aux Fuel Pump Switch…………………..Off
Ignition Switch………………………………Off
Master Switch……………………………….Off
Fuel Selector…………………………………Off N/A
Fire Extinguisher…………………………..Use
What procedures should be followed if there is an ELECTRICAL fire in flight?
Master Switch………………………………………….Off
Vents/Cabin Air/Heat………………………………..Closed
Fire Extinguisher………………………………………Activate
Avionics Power Switch………………………………Off
All Other Switches……………………………………Off
Cabin……………………………………………………..Ventilate
Land…………………………………………As Soon as Practicable
What procedures should be followed if there is an ENGINE FAILURE during TAKEOFF prior to VR?
Throttle………………………………………………….Idle
Brakes…………………………………………………..Apply
Flaps…………………………………………………….Retract
Mixture………………………………………………….Idle Cut Off
Ignition Switch…………………………………………Off
ATC………………………………………………………Advise
Master Switch…………………………………………Off
What procedures should be followed if there is an ENGINE FAILURE during TAKEOFF after VR?
Airspeed (flaps up)………………………………70 KIAS
(flaps down)…………………………..65 KIAS
All Turns………………………………………Shallow Banks
Landing Field………………………………………Select
Mixture……………………………………………….Idle Cut Off
Fuel Selector………………………………………Off
Ignition Switch…………………………………….Off
Flaps………………………………………………….As Required
Master Switch……………………………………..Off
Cabin Door………………………………………….Unlatch
ATC……………………………………………….Advise (121.5)
How does an altimeter work?
Aneroid wafers expand and contract as atmospheric pressure changes, and through a shaft and gear linkage, rotate pointers on the dial of the instrument.
What are the limitations of a pressure altimeter?
Non standard pressure and temperature; temperature variations expand or contract the atmosphere and raise or lower pressure levels that the altimeter senses.
- *On a warm day** – The pressure level is higher than on a standard day. The altimeter indicates lower than actual altitude.
- *On a cold day** – The pressure level is lower than on a standard day. The altimeter indicates higher than actual altitude.
Changes in surface pressure also affect pressure levels at altitude.
- *Higher than standard pressure** – The pressure level is higher than on a standard day. The altimeter indicates lower than actual altitude.
- *Lower than standard pressure** – The pressure level is lower than on a standard day. The altimeter indicates higher than actual altitude.
Remember : High to low or hot to cold, look out below!
How does the airspeed indicator operate?
The airspeed indicator is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which measures the difference between impact pressure from the pilot head and undisturbed atmospheric pressure from the static source. The difference is registered by the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument.
How does the vertical speed indicator work?
The vertical speed indicator is a pressure differential instrument. Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the one in an airspeed indicator. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system, but the case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change more slowly than the pressure inside the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower and the pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward, showing a climb and indicating the number of feet per minute the aircraft is ascending.
What are the various power sources that may be used to power the gyroscopic instruments in an airplane?
In some airplanes, all the gyros are vacuum, pressure, or electrically operated: in others, vacuum or pressure systems provide the power for the heading and altitude indicators, while the electrical system provides the power for the turn coordinator. Most airplanes have at least two sources of power to ensure at least one source of bank information if one power source fails.
How does the attitude indicator work?
The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted on a horizontal plane and depends upon the rigidity in space for its operation. The horizon bar represents the true horizon. This bar is fixed to the gyro and remains in a horizontal plane as the airplane is pitched or banked about its lateral or longitudinal axis, indicating the attitude of the airplane relative to the true horizon.
How does the heading indicator operate?
The operation of the heading indicator uses the principle of rigidity in space. The rotor turns in a vertical plane, and the compass card is fixed to the rotor. Since the rotor remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to the vertical plane. As the instrument case and the airplane revolve around the vertical axis, the card provides clear and accurate heading information.
How does the turn coordinator operate?
The turn part of the instrument uses precession to indicate direction and approximate rate of turn. A gyro reacts by trying to move in reaction to the force applied thus moving the needle or miniature aircraft in proportion to the rate of turn. The slip / skid indicator is a liquid-filled tube with a ball that reacts to centrifugal force and gravity.
What will the turn indicator indicate when the aircraft is in a “skidding” or a “slipping” turn?
Slip – The ball in the tube will be on the inside of the turn; not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank.
Skid – The ball in the tube will be to the outside of the turn; too much rate of turn for the amount of bank.
Draw out the fuel system for the c172s with fuel injection.
Fuel Tank *
Fuel Selector Valve (controlled) *
Fuel Reservoir Tank *
Auxiliary Fuel Pump (controlled)
Fuel Shutoff Valve (controlled)
Fuel Strainer *
Engine Driven Fuel pump
Mixture
Fuel Injections
What is an “isogonic line”?
Shown on most aeronautical charts as broken magenta lines, isotonic lines connect points of equal magnetic variation. They show the amount and direction of magnetic variation, which from time to time may vary.
What is “magnetic variation”?
Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north. It is expressed as east variation or west variation depending upon whether magnetic north (MN) is to the east or west of true north (TN), respectively.
What is “magnetic deviation”?
Because of magnetic influences within the airplane itself (electrical circuits, radios, lights, tools, engine, magnetized metal parts, etc.) the compass needle is frequently deflected from its normal reading. This deflection is called deviation. Deviation is different for each airplane, and also varies for different headings of the same airplane. The deviation value may be found on a deviation card located in the airplane.
What is a “VOR” or “VORTAC”?
VORs are VHF radio stations that project radials in all directions (360°) from the station, like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Each of these radials is denoted by its outbound magnetic direction. Almost all VOR stations will also be VORTACs. A VORTAC (VOR-Tactical Air Navigation), provides the standard bearing information of a VOR plus distance information to pilots of airplanes which have distance measuring equipment (DME).
What limitations, if any, apply to VOR reception distances?
VORs are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment.
What is an “NDB”?
A non-directional beacon; a low-to medium-frequency radio beacon transmits non-directional signals where by the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and “home” or “tract” to the station.
NDBs have one advantage over the VOR. This advantage is that low or medium frequencies are not affected by line-of-sight. The signals follow the curvature of the Earth; therefore, if the aircraft is within the range of the station, the signals can be received regardless of altitude.
What is “ADF”?
Automatic Direction Finder – Many general aviation-type airplanes are equipped with automatic direction finder (ADF) radio receiving equipment which operate in the low to medium frequency bands. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known as a Non-Directional Beacon (NDB). The most common use of ADF is that of “homing” by flying the needle to the station.
