Principles and theories of learning and performance

Question 1

What are the 3 stages of learning?

Answer 1

> Cognitive stage
Associative stage
Autonomous stage

Question 2

What does the cognitive stage include?

Answer 2

> The performer has to think carefully about their actions and try to understand how to copy the demonstrations and instructions from their coach.
The performer may use extrinsic feedback to help them
Motor programmes (components of a skill that can be stored in the memory) are not yet developed.
Performer may use trail and error in their approach
For example a hockey player working out the actions of a pass

Question 3

What does the associative stage include?

Answer 3

> Longer duration than the cognitive stage
The performer has to practice to progress
Trail and error may still be used to perfect the actions
Performer may still use feedback which will become more internal
Performer may compare themselves to top level athletes (a process called modelling)
Movements become smoother and more coordinated

Question 4

What does the autonomous stage include?

Answer 4

> Practice must continue to stay at this high level
Actions are fluent, efficient and automatic
Performer can concentrate on fine details of the task
Motor programme is fully developed
Performer is classed as an expert

Question 5

What is feedback and what are the 6 types of feedback? (Perhaps Not Every Person Is Real)

Answer 5

> Feedback - Information to aid error correction
Positive - Encouragement
Negative - Error correction
Extrinsic - From an outside source (coach)
Performance (knowledge of) - About technique
Intrinsic - From an inside source
Results (knowledge of) - Concerns the outcome

Question 6

How does feedback relate to the stages of learning?

Answer 6

> Cognitive stage - a novice would benefit most from positive feedback (encouragement) and external advice. This is due to their limited knowledge of the skill and positive feedback would motivate the performer.
Associative stage - early in this stage external information would be used to refine movements and as this stage develops the use of intrinsic feedback is used to control the performance.
Autonomous stage - benefit from error correction and they would use their existing knowledge of the task to make internal adjustments.

Question 7

What is a learning plateau?

Answer 7

> Is a period of time during performance where there are no signs of improvement. The performer does not seem to be getting better at the task.
This can be illustrated from the learning curve graph.

Question 8

What are the 4 stages of a learning curve graph?

Answer 8

1) Where the rate of learning is slow and the performance level is poor because the performer is new to the task. Using trail and error.
2) A rapid acceleration in the rate of learning because the performer has begun to master the task. Provide reinforcement and motivation.
3) No improvement in the rate of learning and the performance has reached a “plateau”. Level is maintained.
4) Is a period towards the end of the task when, perhaps due to fatigue, performance may actually deteriorate. This is called drive reduction.

Question 9

What are the causes of the plateau?

Answer 9

> Lack of motivation - lack of rewards may cause the performer to lose motivation to train.
Boredom - repetition of tasks may cause boredom.
Coaching - A coach may issue a skill incorrectly
Limit of ability - A performer has reached the full extent of their ability.
Targets set too low - Doesn’t allow performer to use full range of their skills.
Fatigue - Continuous action of the skills may inevitably end in tiredness.

Question 10

What are the solutions to the plateau effect?

Answer 10

> New challenges to test the performer
Could find a new coach to raise performance
New coach could offer more praise to increase motivation
A rest could be taken to avoid fatigue
More variety to the task to reduce boredom
The player could get feedback to help improve performance and motivation

Question 11

What are the 4 methods of guidance?

Answer 11

1) Visual guidance
2) Verbal guidance
3) Manual guidance
4) Mechanical guidance

Question 12

What is visual guidance?

Answer 12

> This is guidance that can be seen. For example a demonstration.
The intention to create a mental image for a beginner as a reference point.
The coach should repeat the demonstration and allow the performer time to practice it as well as a mental practice.
The key points of the skill should be highlighted and reinforcement should be used to encourage retention of the skill.
Advantages
- Highlight specific weaknesses
- Coach tries to show what the skill should look like
- Creates a mental image
Disadvantages
- Demonstrations must be completely accurate
- If too much information is given the performer may become confused

Question 13

What is verbal guidance?

Answer 13

> It is an explanation of the task.
Used with visual guidance
Coach uses verbal guidance as a key or a prompt to ensure the correct actions are displayed
Also used to give tactical advice
Disadvantages
- Too much information can confuse the performer
- Language should be short and simple
- Performer may lose concentration if speech isn’t brief
- The correct type of feedback should be used to ensure the best outcome

Question 14

What is manual guidance?

Answer 14

> Involves physical support. For example holding a gymnast on a volt.
Advantages
- Helps to eliminate danger
- Helps to build the confidence of the performer
- Reduces fear and anxiety associated with dangerous or difficult tasks
Disadvantages
- Can have a detrimental effect on performance
- Too much reliance on physical support
- May begin to depend on support too much

Question 15

What is mechanical guidance?

Answer 15

> A device used to help performance. For example an armband in swimming.
Advantages
- Builds confidence in performance
- Eliminates danger
- Gives a feel of the whole task
- Can be used with everyone
Disadvantages
- If used for too long it can interfere with the whole task
- Performer may depend on it too much
- Motivation could be lost if performer thinks the task is not being performed independently

Question 16

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 16

> Skinner’s theory - he observed rats in a cage. The cage was fit with a mechanism that delivered food to the rats every time it was touched. The rats quickly learned that when they hit the mechanism they got food.
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated.
Known as a behaviourist theory as it connects the stimulus to the response.
Operant conditioning is characterised by:
- Trail and error
- Coach might manipulate the environment
- Shapes behaviour by using reinforcement
Reinforced actions can be strengthened while incorrect actions can be weakened.
Success acts as a satisfier

Question 17

What is the stimulus response bond?

Answer 17

> Operant conditioning works by strengthening the link between the stimulus and the response. This is known as the S-R bond.
For example a game of badminton. If a shot was placed high in the air and mid court the best response would be to do a smash shot.

Question 18

What is positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment?

Answer 18

> Positive reinforcement - When a pleasant stimulus is given to increase the likelihood of a correct response occurring again in the future.
Negative reinforcement - Takes away an unpleasant stimulus when the performer does the correct action.
Punishment - When a coach gives an unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions from happening. For example giving a red card in football.

Question 19

What is observational conditioning and what are the 4 processes?

Answer 19

> Bandura’s theory
Both acceptable and unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching and coping behaviour from people.
The 4 processes a coach can use for a performer to copy a role model are:
1) Attention
2) Retention
3) Motor production
4) Motivation

Question 20

What is attention, retention, motor production and motivation?

Answer 20

> Attention - Making the demonstration attractive to the performer. Explain the reasons and point out its functions why you are asking them to learn it. Make sure information given is loud and clear
Retention - Remembering the demonstration and being able to repeat it. Break down information given into chunks. Make sure the demonstration is accurate and clear. The performer should attempt the skill as soon as it has been shown.
Motor production - Having the mental and physical ability to do the task. Setting a task that has the same level of ability as the performer. The player should be given time to practice the task.
Motivation - Having the drive to complete a task. Give positive feedback and reinforcement.

Question 21

What is social development theory?

Answer 21

> Vygotsky
Learning by the association of others. For example coaches and teachers who are classed as “more knowledgeable other” (MKO).
MKO gives advice and demonstrations but may also influence values and actions such as a high degree of effort.
Inter-psychological learning - learning from others externally.
Intra-psychological learning - learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge.
Vygotsky also suggested that learning can be constructed into stages.

Question 22

What is constructivism?

Answer 22

> Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance.
The MKO may help to give more advice as the skill becomes more advanced.
Vygotsky suggested that the performer will use 3 levels of performance to assess what they need to do to improve. He suggested that the learner uses zone of proximal development. These are:
1) What can I do alone?
2) What can I do with help?
3) What I can’t do yet?

Question 23

What is insight learning?

Answer 23

> Gestaltist theory.
Insight learning - Using experiences and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.
For example a runner in a 3000m race may know that some of the athletes have a strong 400m finish so the performer works out that it will be a good idea for them to sprint at the start to get a good lead.