principles Flashcards
4 basic tissue types
epithelium, connective tissue, muscle, nervous tissue
description of the epithelium
cover inner surfaces of body
line hollow organs
form glands
non-vascular
functions of the epithelium
mechanical and chemical barrier
absorption and secretion
containment
locomotion
cell shapes of the epithelium
squamous: flatted
cuboidal: cube
columnar: tall and thin
name of epithelium with different number of layers
simple- one layer
stratified: two or more
pseudostratified: multiple layers
cell surface features of epithelium
prominent microvilli
cilia
keratinized
two types of glandular epithelia
- endocrine: product secreted towards basal(blood) end of cell: distributed by vascular system, ductless glands
- exocrine: product secreted towards apical(in lumen) end of cell: ducted glands
three types of connective tissue
soft connective tissue
hard connective tissue
blood and lymph
3 types of soft connective tissues
loose
dense regular if fibres aligned
dense irregular if fibres run in many direction
examples of soft connective tissue
tendons & ligaments(fibrous connective tissue)
mesentery
stroma of organs
dermis of skin
description of hard connective tissue
strong
flexible, compressible
semi-rigid
examples of hard connective tissue
bone and cartilage
3 types of cartilage
hyaline
elastic
fibrocartilage
description of muscle
generate force of contraction by movement of actin fibres over myosin fibres
3 types of muscle
smooth
skeletal
cardiac
description of smooth muscle
involuntary and non- striated
description of skeletal muscle
voluntary and striated, elongated and mutlinucleiated
located at the periphery, internal to cell membrane
description of cardiac muscle
intercalated discs
multiple intercellular junctions
loose vs dense connective tissue
loose: protein/collagen fibers with spaces
dense: protein/ collagen fibres that are tightly packed
layers of blood vessels
tunica intima (endothelium/epithelium) ----internal elastic membrane tunica media (smooth muscle) ----external elastic membrane tunica externa
examples of hyaline cartilage
tracheal rings
costal cartilage
epiphyseal growth
Gametogenesis
oogenesis (oogonia-> secondary oocyte at meiosis 2)
spermatogenesis (spermatogonia->mature sperm cells)
Fertilization
sperm attach to ZP2 receptor in ampulla
membrane thickens
sperm receptors shred
zygote with 46 chromosome formed
describe the Cleavage phase of embryo development
zygote undergo mitosis to form morula
morula: 16 cell blastomere, hollow structure
blasulation
morula-> blastocytes
blastomere in morula differentiate into inner and outer cell mass
1. outer: trophoblast (cytotrophoblast, syncytiotorphoblast)
2. inner: embryo blast (bilmanar disc)
implantation when and where
Typically by day 6
On the posterior or anterior uterine wall
gastrulation
torphoblast-> attach to uterus (week 1), form connection w/ mom
bilaminar disc-> trilaminar disc (prim streak formed, week 3)
Gastrulation 1: what happens to trophoblast (placenta)
syncytiotrophoblast: proliferated out zena pellucida creating outer cytoplasm
(connect to maternal blood vessels for nutrient and oxygen)
cytotrophoblast: inner base lining
Gastrulation 2a. layers of the embryblast
amnioc acid
bilamnar disc (epiblast, hypoblast, week 2)
primitive yolk sac
Gastrulation 2b. what happens to epiblast layer/ cells
epiblast: prim streak: secrete FGF-R trigger SNAIL-1 inside epiblast cells causing it to detach
prim streak-> prim groove
epiblast-> amniotic ectoderm
Gastrulation 2c. how bilaminar disc becomes trilaminar
hypoblast-> endoderm: epiblast cells moved from groove, replacing hypoblast
epiblast cells fill space between endoderm and epiblast layer-> mesoderm
what does ectoderm form into
CNS/ spinal chord
what does mesoderm form into
muscle skeleton structure cardiac muscles (myocardium) renal system
what does primitive endoderm form into
GI/organs/ visceral
thyroid, parathyroid, thymus
organogenesis
specialized cells in the 3 germ layers are formed-> organ
briefly explain the process occurring to leukocytes (esp neutrophils) after inflammation
inflammation-> increased intracellular fluid and blood flow-> margination -> adhesion-> diapedesis-> chemotaxis-> activation by TNF alpha & PAMP
explain margination in regards to leukocytes
leukocytes travelling along endothelial cells
explain adhesion in regards to leukocytes
leukocytes binding to adhesion molecules (selectins, ICAM-1) expressed by endothelial cells
explain diapedesis in regards to leukocytes
neutrophils migrating across endothelial on the intact walls of the capillary
explain chemotaxis in regards to leukocytes
leukocytes travelling to exact side of injury
what activates leukocytes at site of injury
TNF-alpha
PAMP
what happens to neutrophils when activated at site of injury
phagocytosis
degranulation
NETS
identify metaplasia vs hyperplasia vs dysplasia vs neoplasia
“Meta-” different (crudely).
Hyperplasia: refers to tissue growth as a result of cell proliferation.
Dysplasia: change resulting in abnormal proliferation of cells, and is malignant or pre-malignant.
Neoplasia: development of new cells.
where does simple columnar epithelium line
the intestines (replaced during Barretts)
where does simple cuboidal epithelium line
ducts and secretory portions of small glands and kidney tubules
where does pseudostratified columnar epithelium line
trachea and upper Respiratory tract
where does stratified squamous epithelium line
esophagus, mouth, vagina
areas subject to traction
where does transitional epithelium line
bladder, urethra, ureters
pharmodynamics vs pharmokinetics
pharmodynmics: drugs concentration and effect (what drugs does to body)
pharmokinetics: drug concentration and time (what body does to drugs)
four main concepts in pharmokinetics
absorption
distribution
metabolism
excretion
define drug absorption
drug enters the body from its site of administration
define drug distribution
drug leaves circulation and enters the perfused tissue
define drug metabolism
tissue enzymes catalyse chemical conversion of a drug to a more polar form that is more readily excreted from the body
define drug excretion
removing the drug from the body
what is bioavalibility of drugs, what type has high availability?
extent/ rate at which the active drug or metabolite enters systemic circulation
IV form: 100%
PO form: <100% due to first pass effect
what is first pass effect
presystemic metabolism of drug decreasing bioavalibity
drug-> intestines-> liver-> hepatocyte metabolism or. bile excretion
define volume of distribution
theoretical volume occupied by a drug compared to plasma concentration
equation for volume of distribution
Vd= amount of drug/ plasma concentration
difference between low Vd and high Vd
low Vd: highly bound to plasma protein (large, charged drugs)
high Vd: highly distributed to tissue (small lipophylic drugs)
define half life
time required to decrease plasma concentration of drugs in body by half
half life difference between zero and first order elimination
zero: rate constant
first: rate is proportional to drug concentration, takes about 4-5 half life
drug clearance formula
rate of elimination/ plasma concentration
clearance vs half life effect on steady state
clearance effect magnitude/ concentration of steady state but half life effect time it takes to get to steady state
half life/ T1/2 formula
depends on volume of distribution and clearance
T(1/2)= (0.7 x Vd) / clearance
what is phase 1 of drug metabolism
right liver: Oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis
Makes a drug more polar, adds a chemically reactive group permitting conjugation
potentially toxic
what is phase 2 of drug metabolism
left of liver: Conjugation
Adds an endogenous compound increasing polarity
what are the four common types of receptors
ligand gated ion channels
G-protein coupled receptors
enzyme linked receptors
intracellular receptors
describe ligand gated ion channels, with examples
ligand bind to site allowing flow to of ions
faster than carrier molecules
ie, Nicotinic ACh cholinergic receptors
describe G-coupled protein receptors
ligand bind to receptor
activate intracellular G-protein to dissociate and bind to adenyl cyclase
what are the conformational changes in G protein subunits once activated
inactive: alpha+ beta + gamma+ GDP
active: beta + gamma/ alpha + GTP dissociated and bind with adenyl cyclase
what is the function of activated adenyl cyclase
convert ATP to cAMP (stimulates protein kinase A)
what are the 3 types and functions of G proteins
Gs: stimulator G protein activating Adenyl cyclase (increase cAMP)
Gi: inhibitor G protein activating adenyl cyclase (decrease cAMP)
Gq: activates phospholipase pathway (PLC)
what happens in activation of phospholipase pathway (PLC)
DAG (signalling)
IP3 (increase intracellular Ca2+)
define enzyme linked receptor
hormone/ growth factor bind to 2 receptors of kinase (ATP-> ADP)
phosphorylated kinase: attracts protein to bind causing cellular response
kinase is usually tyrosine
define intracellular receptors and examples
ligand needs to first cross membrane to bind to intracellular receptors
ie, thyroid and steroid hormones
function of alpha 1 adrenergic receptors
vascular smooth muscle contraction
Gq
function of alpha 2 adrenergic receptors
in brain stem and periphery inhibit sympathetic activity, lower blood pressure.
Gi
function of beta 1 adrenergic receptors
increased heart rate
Gs
function of beta 2 adrenergic receptors
smooth muscle dilation, bronchodilation
(could also increase heart rate)
Gs and Gi
what is the plane
transverse/ axial plane
coronal plane
sagittal plane
how does agonist + competitive antagonist effect potency
decrease potency, more [drug] needs to reach EC50
potency vs efficacy
more potent= moving to the left of x axis
amount of drug needed to produce a given effect
more efficacy= moving up y axis
ability of a drug-receptor complex to produce a maximum functional response
T12 level for aorta
coeliac trunk
L3 level for aorta
inferior mesenteric artery
L4 level for aorta
bifurcation of abdominal aorta (iliac arteries)
antibiotics that inhibit cell wall formation
pepitodglycan cross-linking: penicillin, cephalosporins
peptidoglycan synthesis: glycopeptides (vancomycin)
antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis/ act on ribosome
50s subunits: macrolides, clindamycin
30s: aminoglycosides, tetracyclines
antibiotics that inhibits DNA synthesis
quinolones (ciprofloxacin)
antibiotics that damage DNA
metronidazole
antibiotics that inhibits RNA synthesis
rifampicin
what begins G-protetin cycle
external signal binding to ligand
GDP bind to G protein subunits-> GTP bind to alpha and dissociates
what ends G-protein cycle
hydrolysis of GTP back to GDP again at the alpha subunit
components of the NEWS score
resp rate, heart rate O2 saturation systolic blood pressure temperature consciousness
what are nicotinic cholinergic acetylcholine receptors
ligand gated ion channels at the start of postganglionic receptors for both parasymp and symp stimulations
travel route of sympathetic vs parasympathetic
parasymp-> ACh Nicotinic-> ACh Muscarinic-> organ
symp-> ACh Nicotinic-> Norepinephrine alpha/Beta-> organ
symp-> ACh Nicotinic-> Norepinephrine-alpha / epin-Beta-> systemic release
define sensitivity for screening and formula
proportion of people with the disease who are positive to the test
TP/(TP+FN)
define specificity for screening and formula
proportion of disease-free people who are negative to the test
TN/ (TN+FP)
define positive predicted value
people who have a disease other than the ones who have tested positive
TP/(TP+FP)
define negative predicted value
people who don’t have the disease other than the ones who tested negative
TN/(TN+FN )
hallmarks of cancer
evading growth suppressors resting cell death enabling replicative immortality sustaining proliferative signalling initiating angiogenesis avoiding immune destruction
which cranial nerves only carry parasympathetic nerve fibres
cranial nerve 2, 7, 9, 10
function of ER, rough vs smooth
rough: translate/ fold proteins, manufactor lysosomal enzymes
smooth: synthesize steroid, lipid
function of golgi apparatus
modifies, sort, package molecules destined for cell secretion
function of mitochondria
aerobic respiration, power house
what is produced and used during glycolysis, and by which chemicals
produced: 4 ATP (phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase) 2 NADH (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate)
used: 2 ATP (hexokinase and phosphofructose kinase )
net gain: 2ATP
function of nucleus
DNA maintenance
RNA transcription
RNA splicing
function of nucleolus
ribosome production
function of ribosomes
translation of RNA into proteins
purpose for glycolysis
converting glucose into pyruvate
4 steps before 6c glucose becomes two 3c triose phosphate
begin: glucose
1. passive facilitated diffusion GLUTs / Na+ glucose symptorter
2. hexokinase add phosphate group to glucose
3. glucose-6-p turns into fructose version through phosphohexose isomerase
4. phosphofrutocose kinase adds another phosphate
1/2end: fructose -1,6,-biphosphate
4 steps from frutcose diphosphate to pyruvate (these four steps occurs twice)
begin: fructose-1,6-biphosphate
1. aldolase form 2x triose phosphate(3c+p)
2. GA3PDH ( also converts NAD+ to NADH ) adds phosphate making p-c,c,c-p
3. a phosphate is taken by phosphoglycerate kinase (ADP-> ATP) making phosphoglycerate
4. structural changes convert phosphoglycerate to pyruvate, pyruvate kinase also takes a phosphate converting (ADP->ATP)
end: pyruvate
what occurs to pyruvate during anaerobic conditions
pyruvate is converted into lactic acid when NADH unloads on pyruvate and converted back to NAD+ through oxidation
high lactic acid= metabolic acidosis
what are the 3 irreversible steps of glycolysis
hexokinase; phosphofructokinase; pyruvate kinase
product of TCA cycle from each acteyl-coA
3 NADH +
2 CO2
1 FADH2
1 GTP
where are the enzymes in TCA cycle located
All enzymes of the TCA cycle are located in the matrix, apart from succinate dehydrogenase which is integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane
describe the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA in the beginning to TCA cycle
- Catalysed by PDC
2. Allosterically regulated by phosphorylation
how does TCA cycle end
One GTP formed and C4 recreated
how does oxidative phosphorylation end
Flow of H+ back into the matrix through ATP synthases (following concentration gradient) phosphorylates ADP → ATP
total product from glycolysis, TCA, oxidative phosphorylation
From 1 molecule of glucose
30-32 ATP molecules are produced
what are defensins
cysteine rich cationic anti-microbial protein secreted by epithelial cells at mucosal surfaces
4 c antibiotic
co-amoxiclav
cephalosporins
fluoroquinolones
clindamycin
What is inside the femoral triangle
Femoral nerve, artery, vein
