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Principles Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the timeline of foetal development

A

1) Gametogenesis
2) Fertilisation
3) cleavage
4) gastrulation
5) formation of body plan
6) organogenesis

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2
Q

What is gametogenesis

A

Formation of gametes (egg/sperm)

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3
Q

Why does meiosis need to occur

A

To form haploids with half the amount of normal chromosomes so that when the gametes (haploids) join together, they would have a complete chromosome set instead of missing or having extra pairs

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4
Q

When does oogenesis begin

A

During foetal stage

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5
Q

When does oogenesis end

A

After menopause

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6
Q

The number of total oognoia during the female’s whole lifetime is determined

A

During foetal stage

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7
Q

Describe oogenesis

A

1) Primordial germ cell undergoes mitosis to form oogonia
2) oogonia forms primary oocytes
3) Primary oocyte stays dormant till puberty
4) Primary oocyte undergoes 1st meiotic division to form secondary oocyte
5) secondary oocyte undergoes 2nd meiotic division, forming definitive oocyte (haploid)

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8
Q

When does spermatogenesis occur

A

Begins at puberty and continues throughout life

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9
Q

Describe spermatogenesis

A

1) spermatogonia undergoes mitosis
2) one of the cell will be used to replenish spermatogonia the other undergoes mitosis
3) The cell that undergoes mitosis produces primary spermatocytes
4) Primary spermatocytes then undergoes meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes
5) secondary spermatocytes undergo 2nd meiosis -> spermatids
6) Spermatids undergo spermiogenesis to form spern

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10
Q

What happens to the fertilised egg after fusion of sperm and egg

A

Membrane thickens
Sperm receptors are shed

This prevents other sperm from entering

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11
Q

What is cleavage

A

Period of mitotic division to form blastomeres -> forms morula -> forms blastula

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12
Q

Feature of blastomere

A

There is no increase in overall size, the cells become smaller and smaller after each division

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13
Q

When does blastula form

A

When fluid filled blastoceal cavity forms

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14
Q

What happens to the cells in blastula

A

Separated into 2 groups

1) trophoblast: cells that form the placenta
2) Embryoblast: cells that form the embryo

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15
Q

What is gastrulation

A

The process by which 3 different layers are formed in the embryo

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16
Q

What are the 3 different layers formed in the embryo during gastrulation

A

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm

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17
Q

Which layer in gastrulation is the outer layer of the embryo

A

Ectoderm

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18
Q

Which layer in the embryo during gastrulation is the inner layer

A

Endoderm

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19
Q

Ectoderm is used to form

A

Skin

Nervous tissue

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20
Q

Mesoderm is used to form

A 
Skeletal muscles
Dermis (middle layer of skin) 
Bone
Heart 
Urogenital system
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21
Q

What happens during formation of body plan

A

Embryonic folding occurs

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22
Q

When does gastrulation occur

A

Week 3

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23
Q

When does formation of body plan occur

A

17 days after fertilisation

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24
Q

What happens in organogenesis

A

The 3 germ layers forms organs as the cells undergo differentiation and become specialized

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25
Where does fertilisation occur
Ampulla
26
What does the penetration of sperm into egg cell trigger
The secondary oocyte to undergo 2nd meiosis to form definitive haploid Cortical granules in the oocyte to release contents to prevent further entry by other sperm cells
27
What is the layer that surrounds the blastomeres called
Zona pellucida
28
What is considered as morula
When there are more than 16 blastomeres
29
What is blastocyst hatching
Blastula hatches out of zona pellucida to allow increase in growth and implantation
30
Where does the blastula attach to after blastocyst hatching and how
Attaches to the posterior or anterior endometrium epithelium by trophoblasts
31
When does implantation of blastula occur
On day 6
32
What is corpus luteum
A temporary endocrine structure that releases progesterone hormone to maintain lining of uterus for implantation
33
Corpus luteum is developed from
Empty follicle (follicle ruptures to release oocyte)
34
Embryoblast separates into which 2 layer s
Epiblast | Hypoblast
35
Tophoblast separates into which 2 groups
Cytotrophoblast | syncytiotrophoblast
36
Function of syncytiotrophoblast
Allows implantation | Secrete hCG to stimulate corpus luteum to release progesterone
37
What closes the endometrium after implantation has been completed
Fibrin coagulum
38
What are the 2 cavities formed by the 2 layers of embryoblast
Primitive yolk sac | Amniotic cavity
39
Which embryoblast layer forms the primitive yolk sac
Hypoblast
40
What are lacunae
Vacuoles in syncytiotrophoblast layer which allows maternal blood to diffuse into the embryoblast
41
What structure eventually forms the umbilical cord
Connecting stalk
42
How is definitive yolk sac formed
When a second wave of hypoblast migrate
43
What is chorionic cavity and how does it form
Chorionic cavity is the cavity surrounding the embryo It forms as extraembryonic mesoderm develops and degenerates around the bilamnar embryonic disc (epiblast and hypoblast layers)
44
When does primitive streak form
Day 15
45
What is primitive streak and where is it
Primitive streak is thickened epiblast that forms in midline at caudal end.
46
Function of primitive streak
Release signaling molecules Allows movement of epiblast cells to form the 3 germ layers Determines body axes
47
3 regions of mesoderm
Paraxial Intermediate Lateral
48
Subregions of lateral mesoderm
Somatic layer | Visceral layer
49
What is between the left and right mesoderm layers and what is its function
Notochord | Precursor of spinal cord
50
Fate of visceral (lateral) mesoderm
Heart Smooth muscle Mesothelial covering organs
51
Fate of somatic (lateral) mesoderm
Dermis (middle layer of skin) Lining of body wall parts of limbs
52
Fate of paraxial mesoderm
Axial skeleton Skeletal muscle parts of dermis
53
Fate of Intermediate mesoderm
Kidney and ureter | Gonads
54
Fate of endoderm
Lining of the gut tube Lining of resp. tract lining of bladder and urethra
55
What is flucloxacillin prescribed for
Cellulitis | Infective endocarditis caused by staphylococcus aureus
56
Flucloxacillin is only used for which 2 bacteria
Staphylococcus | Streptococcus
57
Examples of beta lactam antibiotics
Penicillin Cephalosporins Temocillin
58
Examples of penicillin
``` Amoxicillin Penicillin Flucloxacillin Co-amoxiclav Piperacillin / tazobactam ```
59
Example of cephalosporin
Ceftriaxone
60
Which penicillin is resistant to beta lactamase
Co-amoxiclav | Piperacillin / tazobactam
61
Components of co-amoxiclav
Amoxicillin + clavulonic acid (beta lactamase inhibitor)
62
Bacteriostatic antibiotics
Macrolides | Tetracyclines
63
How does beta lactam antibiotics work
They have similar structure to D-Alanine D-Alanine so can irreversibly bind to PBP (penicillin binding proteins; transpeptidase) This prevents cross links from forming between new chains formed during cell wall synthesis Causes a hole in cell wall -> cell lysis
64
Temocillin is only used against
Escherichia (e.g. e.coli) Salmonella Enterobacter
65
Are cephalosporins narrow or broad spectrum antibiotics
Broad
66
Why are cephalosporins not really used anymore
Because it is a broad spectrum antibiotic, it can wipe out a lot of bacteria in the gut, reducing competition for C.difficile which allows overgrowth of C.difficile, causing gastroenteritis
67
Examples of glycopeptide antibiotics
Vancomycin | Teicoplanin
68
Are glycopeptides beta lactam antibiotics
No
69
Mechanism of action of glycopeptide
Binds to end of D-Alanine D-Alanine, prevents it from binding to PBP
70
Mechanism of action of macrolides and tetracycline
Binds to 30s subunit of RNA (tetracycline) or 50s (macrolide), preventing protein synthesis
71
Why are macrolides and tetracycline bacteriostatic
Because protein synthesis can resume after these drugs have been removed
72
Examples of macrolides
Clarithromycin | Erythromycin
73
Example of tetracycline
Doxycycline
74
Example of aminoglycosides
Gentamicin
75
Are aminoglycosides bacteriocidal or bacteriostatic
Bacteriocidal
76
Antibiotics that interfere with protein synthesis
Macrolide Tetracycline Aminoglycoside
77
Effect of high serum level of gentamicin
kidney and renal damage (gentamicin toxicity) A cause of unconjugated hepatic jaundice CN VIII damage (vestibulocochlear nerve - transmits sound)
78
Where are macrolides excreted
Via the liver
79
Tetracycline should not be used in
Infants / children / pregnant women
80
Antibiotics that affect the nucleic acids
Metronidazole Rifampicin Fluoroquinolone
81
What does rifampicin inhibit
transcription
82
What does metronidazole cause
Loss of helical structure of DNA and strand breakage in DNA
83
How is metronidazole activated
Reduction activation by obligate anaerobes
84
Side effect of metronidazole
Metallic taste | furred tongue
85
IgA is found in
``` breast milk Saliva Tears Sweat Mucous ```
86
What is holoenzyme
Apoenzyme + cofactors
87
What is apoenzyme
An enzyme that requires a cofactor but is not bound by one
88
Immunoglobin responsible for neonatal immunity
IgA
89
Immunoglobin responsible for foetal immunity
IgG
90
How is IgG transferred to foetus
Across the placenta directly into foetal blood circulation
91
Which immunoglobin is the first Ig produced during a humoral immune response
Pentameric form IgM
92
2 forms of IgM
Monomeric | Pentameric
93
Where is monomeric IgM found
on B cells, acting as B cell antigen receptor
94
Most abundant immunoglobin found in blood
IgG
95
Which immunoglobin mediates type 1 hypersensitivity
IgE
96
Which immunoglobin is dominant in secondary immune response
IgG
97
Which immune cells are responsible for killing worms
Eosinophils | Mast cells
98
Which immune cells are responsible for killing virus
T lymphocytes | B lymphocytes
99
Which immune cells are responsible for killing protozoa
T lymphocytes | Eosinophils
100
Which immune cells are responsible for killing fungi
phagocytes T lymphocytes eosinophils
101
Which immune cell has kidney bean shaped nucleus
Monocytes (precursors of macrophages)
102
Which immune cell has irregular shaped nucleus
Neutrophil
103
Immune cells that have granules in cytoplasm
Neutrophil Mast cells Eosinophils Basophils
104
Which immune cells do not have granules
Monocytes | Lymphocytes
105
Which immune cell has bilobed nucleus
Basophil | Eosinophil
106
Which immune cell has the highest proportion of total WCC
Neutrophils
107
How to differentiate between eosinophil and basophil
Both have bilobed nucleus but the bilobed nucleus of basophils is masked by granules
108
Where are MHC class II molecules found
Macrophage Dendritic B lymphocytes
109
Transendothelial migration
1) margination - neutrophils fall out of axial flow of blood due to slower blood flow so neutrophils move towards the periphery (next to endothelium) 2) Pavementing - Neutrophils bind to the endothelial wall by adhesion molecules and flatten against the wall 3) Rolling - neutrophils roll along the endothelium 4) Diapedesis - migration of neutrophils across the endothelium 5) neutrophils move to site of infection via chemotaxis
110
What are the changes to blood flow and vasculature during inflammation
Vasodilation -> increases blood flow | Blood flow slows
111
What are the changes in blood flow and vasculature during inflammation
Vasodilation - increases blood flow | Blood flow slows down

Y1 Principles (1 decks)

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