Prime minister and the cabinet

Question 1

define core executive

Answer 1

Core executive- The name given to the central part of government, the centre of power where key decisions are made. It is made up of a mixture of elected ministers and appointed advisers or civil servants.

Question 2

define civil servant

Answer 2

Civil Servant- A civil servant is employed by a government department. The most senior civil servants are involved with presenting political decision makers with information, viable options and neutral advice. They are not politicians as they are not elected and not accountable, and so cannot be involved in party politics, but they do have influence. They are permanent and are expected to serve ministers of any party equally faithfully.

Question 3

Explain what is meant by the central executive

Answer 3

The general role of the central executive
The term ‘executive’ refers to one of the three branches of government, standing alongside the legislature and judiciary.

The precise nature of an executive varies from one country to another, but we can identify a number of common roles for all executive bodies.

Question 4

State the general roles of the central executive

Answer 4

The development of government policy

Conducting foreign policy , including relations with other states and international bodies

Organising the defence of the country from external and internal threats

Managing the finances of the state

Responding to major problems or crises such as armed conflict, security threats, economic difficulties or social disorder

Controlling and managing the forces of law and order, including the police, courts, armed forces and intelligence services

Drafting and securing the passage of legislation

Organising the implementation of legislation

Organising and managing the services provided by the state

Question 5

Explain the structure and role of the executive

Answer 5

The structure and role of the executive

The executive is another term for the government. In the British system of parliamentary democracy the members of the government sit within the legislature and are accountable to it. The most important elements of the executive are the prime minister and the cabinet. The cabinet comprises the heads of the departments of state such as the home secretary and the foreign secretary, as well as the chief whip. In addition to this, more junior ministers are also members of the government, although they do not generally attend cabinet.

The executive is also served by senior civil servants, who run the administration of departments of state and implement government policies. The most important of these is the chief secretary to the cabinet, the country’s most senior civil servant, who provides impartial guidance to the prime minister as well as taking the minutes cabinet meetings. A prime minister will also take advice from key political advisers who work for him or her in institutions such as the Cabinet Office and the Policy Unit at 10 Downing Street. It is their job to advise the government on the development of policy ideas and initiatives. The core executive comprises those ministers, senior civil servants and political advisers whom the prime minister freely confides in when developing policy.

Question 6

state the main components of the executive

Answer 6

The prime minister and their close advisers

The cabinet- between 20 and 25 senior ministers appointed by the prime minister

Various bodies that feed information and advice into the cabinet and to the prime minister

Government departments- of these the Treasury holds a special importance as it controls government finances. Many heads of these departments are members of the cabinet. Others may not be in cabinet but are nonetheless influential.

The senior civil servants who serve government ministers- of these the cabinet secretary is the most senior. The holder of this post serves both the prime minister personally and the cabinet collectively.

Various advisers and policy developing bodies (often called ‘think tanks’) that serve government departments

There may also be a few very senior officials of the governing party who hold no official post but who are intimately involved in policy development.

Question 7

Explain the civil service

Answer 7

The civil service- the unelected permanent officials who serve the government- is expected to act in a neutral fashion, standing outside the party battle, and is forbidden from serving the political interests of the government, but it too is technically within the control of the prime minister, who is officially ‘head of the civil service’.

Question 8

Summarise the Uk’s core executive with its roles

Answer 8

The prime minister - chief policy maker and chief executive - cabinet, cabinet secretary, private secretary of civil servants, policy unit

Cabinet - approving policy and settling disputes within government - Cabinet committees, Cabinet office and cabinet secretary

Treasury - managing the government’s finances - senior civil servants, special advisors, think tanks

government departments - developing and implementing specialised policies - civil servants, special advisors and think tanks

Question 9

define royal prerogative

Answer 9

Royal prerogative- The arbitrary powers formerly enjoyed by the monarchy, but gradually transferred to the government and then to the prime minister during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The powers include patronage, conducting foreign policy, negotiating foreign treaties and conducting military affairs (as commander in chief).

Question 10

Explain the role of the prime minister and powers of PM

Answer 10

The main roles and powers of the prime minister today are:-

Complete power to appoint or dismiss all government ministers, whether in the cabinet or outside the cabinet. The prime minister also has a say in other public appointments, including the most senior civil servants.

Has the power to negotiate foreign treaties, including trade arrangements with other states and trade organizations.

The prime minister is commander in chief of the armed forces and can commit them to action.

However, it should be noted that this power has come under challenge in recent times. It is now accepted that the prime minister should only make major military commitments ‘on the advice and sanction of Parliament’. Nevertheless, once armed forces have been committed to action, the prime minister has general control of their actions.

The prime minister conducts foreign policy and determines relationships with foreign powers. In this sense the prime minister represents the country internationally.

The prime minister heads the cabinet system, chooses its members, sets the agenda and determines what cabinet committees should exist and who should sit on them.

It is generally true that the prime minister sets the tone of economic policy. Usually this is done alongside the chancellor of the exchequer, who is normally a very close colleague.

Question 11

How does the executive govern the nation? State examples

Answer 11

The executive governs the nation in the following ways:

• It introduces to Parliament proposals for new legislation based on the manifesto that if fought the general election on. These comprise the Queen’s Speech, which is delivered at the state opening of each new Parliament to both the Commons and the Lords.

• It introduces legislation into Parliament in response to changing circumstances. This is known as the ‘doctor’s mandate’, and the Queen’s Speech always makes reference to this with the sentence ‘Other measures will be laid before you.’

• It introduces a Budget which will determine how the government proposes to raise revenue. This will be presented to Parliament in the autumn and will have been drawn up by the chancellor of the exchequer in negotiation with the prime minister.

• It can also introduce secondary or delegated legislation. This means that when legislation has already been passed by Parliament it can be modified by the government without the need for new primary legislation. Statutory instruments, sometimes known as Henry VIII clauses, are used to make these changes and have been criticised for being undemocratic as they seek to bypass full parliamentary scrutiny and debate. In 2016 statutory instruments were deployed to abolish maintenance grants for university students and to allow fracking to take place in national parks.

Question 12

define cabinet government

Answer 12

Cabinet government – A term used to describe a situation where the main decision making of government takes place in cabinet.

In modern history this is not normally the case. Its main alternative is the expression ‘prime ministerial government’.

Question 13

Explain the cabinet

Answer 13

The cabinet sits at the centre of power in the UK political system. Indeed, the UK system of government used to be commonly described as ‘cabinet government’.

This is not to say that it is whereall importantdecisions are made. It is not.
It means thatall official government decisionsand policies must be clearedby the cabinetif they are to be consideredlegitimate.

In that sense the Cabinet holds asimilar position to theUK Parliament. In orderto be implementedand enforced, alllaws must be approved by Parliament.

In thecase of policies and governmentdecisions (that often lead to law making), they must be approved by the cabinetif they are to be considered official policy.

In the case of both, Parliament and Cabinet approval may well be brief and may require little meaningful debate, but such formal approval is essential.

Occasionally,conflict and real disagreementmay occur in both Parliament and Cabinet, but oftensuch approval is merely ritualised.
Cabinet is sometimes described a mere’rubber stamp’.

Question 14

Explain the nature of the cabinet

Answer 14

The Cabinet consists of between 20 and 25 senior government ministers. The precise number of members is in the hands of the prime minister. The prime minister controls much of the work and nature of the cabinet. It is one of their key roles.

The prime minister appoints all cabinet members and may dismiss them. He or she is not required to consult anyone else when making
appointments or dismissals.

Most of the members are senior ministers in charge of large government departments. A few may not have specific ministerial responsibilities but are considered important enough members of the party to sit at the centre of power.

All cabinet members must be members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords (so either MPs or peers). Most are usually MPs.

Several other ministers are also invited to attend cabinet meetings and take part in discussions but are not cabinet ministers.

When final decisions are being made, their view will not be invited. One of them will always be the Chief Whip of the governing party.
Individuals may also be invited to address the cabinet if they have special knowledge or important views, but they will not take part in full discussions.

One civil servant always attends to record the minutes (what is agreed). This is the cabinet secretary, the UK’s most senior civil servant. He or she is a key adviser to the cabinet and to the prime minister personally. It is currently Simon Case (September 2020)

Question 15

define government department

Answer 15

Government department- The work of government is divided among a number of departments. In 2020 there were 19 major departments of state.

Each department is headed by a senior, normally cabinet, minister. Departments are subdivided into sections, each headed by a junior minister, normally known as ministers of state.

Each department and sub-department is staffed by a bureaucracy of civil servants, and some other political advisers.

Question 16

State the roles of current cabinet as of (2022 June)

Answer 16

Prime minister , First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service, and Minister for the Union - BORIS JOHNSON

Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice, deputy prime minister - DOMINIC RAAB

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (Cabinet office) - STEVE BARCLAY

Chancellor of the Exchequer - RISHI SUNAK

Foreign Secretary - ELIZABETH TRUSS

Home Secretary - PRITI PATEL

Secretary of State for Defence - BEN WALLACE

Secretary of State for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities - MICHAEL GOVE

Secretary of State for Health and Social Care - SAJID JAVID

Secretary of State for Education - NADHIM ZAHAWI

Question 17

Explain other features of the cabinet

Answer 17

A number of other features of the cabinet are also noteworthy…

Only members of the governing party are cabinet members. The only exception is with coalition government, as happened between 2010-15. In that case there were both Conservative and Liberal Democrat members.

Cabinet normally meets once a week, usually on a Thursday, and a meeting rarely lasts more than 2 hours.

Additional emergency cabinet meetings may be called.

The prime minister chairs the meetings unless abroad or indisposed, in which case his or her deputy may take over, though when this occurs cabinet may not meet at all.

The proceedings of the cabinet are secret and will not be revealed for at least 30 years

Question 18

Who has the final say in cabinet?

Answer 18

Cabinet does not usually vote on issues. The prime minister always seeks a general consensus and then requires all members to agree to that consensus decision. Any member who wishes to dissent publicly will normally be required to resign and leave the cabinet.

The prime minister sets the final agenda.

The prime minister approves the minutes made by the cabinet secretary. These are a record of formal decisions made and key points raised for consideration.

Cabinet decisions are released to a strictly limited number of civil servants and ministers. Media releases will also be sent out, but with no details of the discussions.
Cabinet members receive an enhanced salary, well above that of junior (non- cabinet) ministers and MPs.

Members of the cabinet are bound by the convention of collective responsibility

Question 19

Explain the role of cabinet changeable?

Answer 19

Surprisingly, the role of the cabinet is both changeable and unclear.

Like the role of the PM, its existence is merely an unwritten constitutional convention.

To some extent, what it does may vary from one prime minister to another. It may also depend on political circumstances. For example, when the UK was led by a coalition government between 2010-2015 the cabinet had a much wider role than usual. Following the 2016 decision to leave the EU, the cabinet had the additional role of overseeing the Brexit negotiations.

Some prime ministers may use the cabinet as an important sounding board for important for ideas an policy initiatives. John Major and David Cameron used it in this way.

Other prime ministers, notably Tony Blair and Margaret Thatcher, had little time for cabinet discussions and tended to use it simply to legitimise decisions made elsewhere.

Margaret Thatcher (PM between 1979- 1990), was notorious for downgrading cabinet to downgrade her own ideas. One of her ministers, Nicholas Ridley, expressed her style as ‘… the leader in her Cabinet. She wasn’t going to be an impartial chairman. She knew what she wanted to do and was not going to have faint hearts in the Cabinet stopping her.’ (Hennessy, P. ‘The Prime Ministers’ Allen Lane p400)

Question 20

Explain the common functions of cabinet which are similar to other administrations in the Uk

Answer 20

despite the variability of the cabinet’s position, it does have a number of functions which are common to all administrations in the UK.
These are as follows:-

In some emergency or crisis situations the prime minister may revert to the collective wisdom of the cabinet to make decisions. They may take a leading role in the discussion but will also invite comments from their close colleagues. Military situations are the most common example, such as UK intervention in the Syrian civil war and in the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan. Even a determined PM will normally inform the Cabinet of their intentions, as Tony Blair did before joining the US led invasion of Iraq in 2003 and Margaret Thatcher before sending a task force to retake the Falkland Islands in 1982. The fact that Cabinet meetings are held in secret helps when military and security matters are at stake.

Cabinet will discuss and set the way in which policy is to be presented, to Parliament, to the government’s own MP’s and peers and to the media. It helps to present a united front when all ministers describe and justify decisions in the same manner.

Occasionally disputes can arise between ministers, very often over how government expenditure is to be shared out. Normally the prime minister and cabinet secretary will try and solve such disputes, but, when this is not possible, the Cabinet will act as the final ‘court of appeal’.

Most government business must pass through Parliament, often in the form of legislation. The cabinet will settle the government’s agenda to deal with this. It is decided what business will be brought before Parliament in the immediate future, which ministers will contribute to key debates and what tactics to adopt if votes in either house are likely to be close. The Chief Whip’s presence on these occasions is vital.

Question 21

Are ministers informed in advanced about proposals in cabinet?

Answer 21

In spite of the need to carry out these functions from time to time, most of the cabinet’s time is spent ratifying decisions made elsewhere. Ministers are informed in advance of such proposals.

Their civil servants prepare brief summaries of what is being proposed and any likely problems that might arise. If ministers decide they have some misgivings about their proposals, they normally raise them with the prime minister or cabinet secretary before the meeting, not during it.

Despite what the popular press often claims, cabinet ‘rows’ are rare. Any negotiations that need to be done will normally be settled outside the Cabinet Room.

Question 22

How is cabinet a clearing house?

Answer 22

The Cabinet is a kind of ‘clearing house’ for decisions. Little discussion is needed.

The Prime Minister will check everyone can support a decision and it invariably goes through ‘on the nod’.

Question 23

Is cabinet the centre of decision-making?

Answer 23

Although it is often said that the cabinet is at the ‘centre of government’, this does not mean it is where most decisions are made. Most decisions in the UK are not made during cabinet meetings.

Most decisions are made elsewhere, so be careful not to confuse these two realities.

Question 24

Explain the cabinet system

Answer 24

The PM, together with their advisers, policy units, close ministerial allies and senior civil servants- will develop proposals of their own. It is extremely rare for the Cabinet to question seriously a prime ministerial initiative.

When ministers intend to oppose the prime minister, they usually resign, an event which is invariably highly dramatic. Perhaps the most remarkable example is when Sir Geoffrey Howe resigned from Margaret Thatcher’s cabinet in 1989, largely over her European policies. Howe’s resignation and farewell speech in the Commons (a traditional event for resigning ministers to explain why they have resigned) helped to bring Thatcher down the following year. Tony Blair lost two Cabinet colleagues over his Iraq policy in 2003, Robin Cook and Clare Short. But such events are rare.

Question 25

define cabinet committees

Answer 25

Cabinet committees- Small subcommittees of the cabinet formed to establish the details of government policies.

Their recommendations are usually adopted by full cabinet.

Question 26

Explain cabinet committees

Answer 26

Most detailed policy is worked out in small committees consisting of cabinet members and other junior ministers.
Most of these cabinet committees are chaired by the Prime Minister or a very senior minister, such as the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
The committees present their proposals to full cabinet and they are usually accepted, though they may sometimes be referred back to committee for amendments and improvement.

Question 27

Explain the role of the chancellor of the exchequer

Answer 27

THE CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER

Almost always supported by the Prime Minister, economic and financial policy is presented to the Cabinet by the Chancellor, often as a fait accompli.

Indeed the annual Autumn Statement (in November) and the Budget (in March) are usually only revealed to the Cabinet on the eve of their presentation to Parliament.

The budget must be passed by Parliament in the months following its presentation. This is largely a formal process but occasionally there has been some dissension. In March 2017, for example, Philip Hammond’s proposal to increase national insurance for the self employed was resisted by all opposition parties plus a number of Conservative rebels, so the measure was quickly dropped.

Question 28

Explain individual ministers

Answer 28

Policies involving a government department specifically, but which require wider approval, are presented to cabinet by the relevant minister, aided by their civil servants.
It is here that dissent is most likely- though if a minister is backed by the Prime Minister, they are in a good position to secure approval.

Question 29

Explain groups of ministers

Answer 29

Policies are often developed by various professional advisers, policy units and think tanks. These may be adopted by various ministers who then bring the ideas to the cabinet, usually after securing the approval of the PM and Chancellor.

If other ministers have problems with such proposals, they are usually voiced well in advance.

The variety of sources of policy coming into cabinet helps the prime minister to control government in general. Prime Ministers see all the proposals in advance and have the opportunity to block policies of which they do not approve.

They also control the cabinet agenda so they can simply avoid discussion of ideas they do not like. Most prime ministers, most of the time, can manage the cabinet system to promote their own policies and block those they wish to oppose.

Question 30

state the powers of the prime minister

Answer 30

POWERS OF PM:

• The PM is perceived by the public to be government leader and representative of the nation. This gives them great authority
• Prime ministerial patronage means the PM has power over ministers and can demand loyalty
• the PM now has a wide range of individuals or bodies to call on personally for advice
• The Pm chairs cabinet and controls its agenda which means they can control the governing process
• The PM enjoys prerogative powers and so can bypass the cabinet on some issues

Question 31

State the powers of the cabinet

Answer 31

POWERS OF THE CABINET:

• If the cabinet is determined, a majority of members can overrule the PM.
• Ultimately the cabinet can remove the PM from office, as happened to Margaret Thatcher in 1990 and Tony Blair in 2007.
• Cabinet may control powerful ministers with a large following who can thrwart the will of the PM. Tony Blair was rivalled by Gordon Brown in 2005-07 and David Cameron was by several influential Eurosceptics in 2010-15
• If the PM leads a divided party, it is more difficult to control cabinet. This happened to John Major in 1992-1997 and Theresa May in 2017-2019

Question 32

define secondary legislation

Answer 32

This includes detailed laws and regulations passed by ministers under powers granted to them by primary legislation.

Most secondary legislation does not concern Parliament, though Parliament reserves the right to debate and vote on such legislation if it is controversial

Question 33

Explain wider government

Answer 33

The general nature of government:

There is no universal definition of the term ‘government’. It is a term often used very loosely. Usually government is defined as the organization that includes the following members:-

Elected Politicians:
The Prime Minister

The Cabinet

Over a hundred junior ministers, who are either business managers for government, assistants to cabinet ministers or the heads of small departments.

Unelected civil servants and other advisers:

The Cabinet Secretary

The prime minister’s private office

The prime minister is helped by a Chief of Staff – (Steve Barclay as of February 2022)

The Cabinet Office, which advises the PM and Cabinet. It consists of civil servants and advisers, not elected politicians

The PM’s own policy units made up of civil servants and advisers

Senior civil servants who give advice directly to their ministers

So when the term government is used, it can mean all or part of the organisation described above.

The PM and Cabinet may be the ‘public face’ of government but they stand at the head of a vast machinery.

Government is expected to speak as one voice, whether or not members are elected politicians.

Question 34

Explain the functions of government

Answer 34

Government, often described as the executive, has a number of key functions.

To develop policy, guided by the policies of the ruling party and leaders

To draft legislation needed to implement policy. This includes major primary legislation and more detailed secondary legislation which sets out specific regulations and principles governing the operations of the state

To manage the passage of legislation

To negotiate with and regulate relations with external organisations and states

To manage the operations of the state including education, health, the welfare state, armed forces, the law enforcement establishment etc.

The political aspects concern the development of policy. Although advice from unelected advisers may be taken, the final decisions are made by ministers as they alone are publicly accountable.

The administrative side, including the implementation of policy and organisation of the state, can be undertaken by unelected officials. Even so, ministers remain accountable for the quality of administration

Question 35

Explain sources of power of the prime minister

Answer 35

The authority of the prime minister derives from the fact that he or she has been asked by the Queen to form a government on their behalf. The individual appointed by the monarch to be prime minister will have been selected because they are able to command the support of the majority of MPs in the House of Commons.

It is highly likely that the prime minister will be the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons. In 1990, when John Major replaced Margaret Thatcher as leader of the Conservative Party, he also became Prime Minister. In exceptional circumstances, though, an individual can be appointed prime minister without being the leader of their party. In 1940, George VI asked Winston Churchill to form a government since, although he was not leader of the Conservative Party, the king was confident that only Churchill would be able to establish the all-party wartime coalition government.

There is also a convention that the Prime Minister should be a member of the House of Commons. When Lord Home formed a government following the resignation of Harold Macmillan in 1963, he renounced his peerage and fought a by-election to secure a seat in the House of Commons.

A prime minister can be asked by the monarch to form a government having won a general election or because they are replacing a prime minister who has resigned office. Since 1976, five of the last seven prime ministers (James Callaghan, John Major, Gordon Brown, Theresa May and Boris Johnson) became prime minister following the resignation of their predecessor.

Question 36

Explain the powers of the prime minister

Answer 36

The powers of the prime minister

The prime minister, as the head of the executive, exercises the royal prerogative. These executive powers derive from the monarchy, but are exercised on the monarch’s behalf by the prime minister. As a result of the transfer of royal prerogative powers the prime minister:

• determines the membership of the government, including the cabinet and cabinet committees
• makes senior appointments to the civil service and judiciary
• appoints life peers to the House of Lords
• negotiates foreign treaties
• directs military forces in combat
• decides whether to launch Trident missiles (the UK’s submarine launched nuclear deterrent)

The government also shares in the prime minister’s royal prerogative. For example, in 2013 the Ministry of Justice requested a posthumous royal pardon for Alan Turing. Turing helped to crack the German Enigma code in the Second World War, but in 1952 was convicted of gross indecency with another man.

The prime minister is also the key figure in casting the narrative of their government. Margaret Thatcher, for example, defined the free market principles and uncompromising spirit of her governments, while during David Cameron’s prime-ministership, the Conservatives became increasingly socially liberal, legislating in favour of same sex marriage.

Question 37

Explain what is meant by collective responsiblity?

Answer 37

What is collective responsibility?
Governing in the UK is a collective responsibility on the whole. While the Prime Minister (PM) does have their own prerogative powers, e.g. over foreign and security policy, decisions are taken collectively by the government.
This means that all ministers (whether in the Cabinet or not) are collectively responsible for all government policies and decisions.
Even though most policy is created by the most senior members of the government, there is a convention that all ministers will defend and publicly support all official policy. It is part of the ‘deal’ when they take office

Question 38

Explain the doctrine of collective responsibility and its five principles

Answer 38

This is known as the doctrine of collective ministerial responsibility and it has five principles.
- Ministers are collectively responsible for all government policies

• All ministers must publicly support all government policies, even if they disagree privately with them

-If a minister wishes to dissent publicly from a government policy, he or she is expected to resign first

• If a minister dissents without resigning, he or she can expect to be dismissed by the PM

-As cabinet meetings are secret, any dissent within government is concealed.

Question 39

Why is collective responsibility important?

Answer 39

We have seen that the principle of collective responsibility within government is a great support to prime ministerial power and this is perhaps its main significance.

A PM’s authority is greatly enhanced by the fact that they will not experience open dissent from within the government.

It is also important that the government presents a united front to the outside world, including Parliament and the media.

Specifically, the government knows it can rely upon the votes of all ministers in any close division in the Commons. This is known as the payroll vote.

It can also be argued that collective responsibility reduces the possibility of open dissent. Critics say that it ‘gags’ ministers and prevents them expressing their own opinions.

Supporters of the principle say that the secrecy of the system means that ministers can express their views honestly within the cabinet, knowing that their disagreement is unlikely to be publicised.

Question 40

define coalition

Answer 40

Coalition- A type of government, rare in the UK but common in the rest of Europe, where two or more parties share government posts and come to agreement on common policies.
Coalitions occur when no single party can command a majority in the legislature.

Question 41

Explain the two key exceptions of collective responsibility

Answer 41

In recent years collective responsibility has been suspended for two different reasons.

The first occurred when UK government was a coalition between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats in 2010-15. Clearly it would have been impossible for ministers from two very different parties to agree on every policy. Nobody would have believed them if they made such a claim. A special arrangement was therefore made.

The Coalition arrived at a Coalition Agreement, which included all the policies the two-party leaderships decided should be common to both sets of ministers.

Collective responsibility applied to the Coalition Agreement, but some areas of policy were not included.
For example, the renewal of the Trident nuclear submarine missile system was excluded. Coalition ministers were not allowed to publicly disagree on the issue. The same exception was applied to the question of intervention in the Syrian Civil War.

The second suspension of collective responsibility was necessary when it was decided to hold a referendum on UK membership of the EU in June 2016.

During the campaign, Conservative ministers were free to express views counter to the official government position-that the UK should remain in the EU.

Several cabinet ministers including the former Justice Secretary, Michael Gove, and former Leader of the House of Commons, Chris Grayling, openly campaigned against the official line.

A similar arrangement had been made the last time there was a referendum on UK membership of the EEC in 1975.

Question 42

Evaluate the debate over collective responsibility

Answer 42

Positive aspects:

• it creates a government which is united, strong and decisive
• the public, parliament and the media are presented with a clear, single version of government policy
• through ministers cannot dissent publicly, the confidentiality of the cabinet means that ministers can engage in frank discussions in private

Negative aspects:

• some argue it puts too much power into the hands of the PM
• it means that ministers cannot be openly honest about their views on policies. This may stifle debate within government
• Resignations under the doctrine are dramatic events which may seriously undermine the government

Question 43

Explain the nature of individual responsibility

Answer 43

The nature of individual responsibility:

Ministers are collectively responsible for government policies , but each minister is also individually responsible for matters that affect his or her department separately.

Ministers are also individually responsible for their own performance as a minister and their conduct as an individual.

The doctrine of individual ministerial responsibility used to be a significant feature of governing in the UK but in recent years it has declined in importance.

Question 44

State the features on individual responsibility

Answer 44

Ministers must be prepared to be accountable to Parliament for the policies and decisions made by their department. This means answering questions in the House, facing interrogation by select committees and justifying their actions in debate.

If a minister makes a serious error of judgement, he or she should be required to resign.

If a serious error is made by the minister’s department, whether or not the minister was involved in the cause of error, the minister is honour bound to resign.

If the conduct of a minister falls below the standards required of someone in public office, he or she should leave office and may face dismissal by the prime minister.

Question 45

Explain the principles of ministerial responsiblity

Answer 45

The first principle-that ministers must offer themselves to be accountable to Parliament- certainly operates as a key principle of UK government.

The second and third principles, have largely fallen into disuse. There is no specific way in which Parliament can remove an an individual minister.

Parliament and its select committees can criticise a minister and call for their resignation, but whether or not they go is entirely in the hands of the prime minister.

There was a time, long ago, when ministers did resign as a matter of principle when a serious mistake was made, but those days have largely passed.

Question 46

Explain the erosion of ministerial responsibility

Answer 46

The last time a minister resigned as a result of errors was when the education secretary, Estelle Morris, left her post volutarily. In her resignation letter to Prime Minister Tony Blair, she said, ‘with some of the recent situations I have been involved in, I have not felt I have been as effective as I should be, or as effective as you need me to be.’

This was a rare event indeed. Before and since, many ministers have experienced widespread criticism and have apologised for errors made but have not resigned or been dismissed.

The erosion of the principle does not, however, extend to the fourth type of responsibility-that which contains personal conduct.
When ministers have fallen short of public standards, they have been quick to resign or been required to resign by prime ministers.

Ministers are therefore vulnerable when it comes to their personal conduct. Perhaps, ironically, it is more likely that a minister will lose their job because of personal conduct rather than the quality of their performance in office.

Question 47

state examples of ministerial resignations following personal misconduct

Answer 47

2010 - David laws - Treasury secretary - RESIGNED: irregularities over his expenses claims

2011 - Liam Fox - Defence secretary - employing a personal friend as adviser at public expense

2012 - Chris Huhne - Energy secretary - convicted of a serious criminal offence

2012 - Andrew Mitchell - Chief Whip - Allegedly insulting a police office in Downing street, using abusive language - later found to be a false allegation

2021 - Matt Hancock - Health secretary - breached social guidance by kissing colleague and having an affair

Question 48

define traditional authority

Answer 48

Traditional authority- This refers to authority which is considered legitimate because it has existed for a long historical period.
The authority of the UK prime minister is traditional because he or she inherits the traditional authority of the monarch.

Question 49

define the traditional authority of the PM

Answer 49

1. Traditional
   The monarch is no longer a political figure but in theory still has considerable powers, known as prerogative powers (also known as the royal prerogative). As the monarch cannot exercise these powers, she delegates them to a prime minister.

There is a ritual followed that appears to show the monarch summoning and appointing her chosen prime minister following each general election (the PM goes to Buckingham Palace to ‘kiss hands’) but this is an illusion. It is simply a representation of the reality that both the monarch and the new PM understand.

Nevertheless, the new Prime Minister does inherit the traditional authority of the monarch. The monarch’s approval, though merely formal, does grant the prime minister authority.

Question 50

Explain the party authority of the PM

Answer 50

2- Party
The Prime Minister is always the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, following a general election.

In this case the PM’s authority comes from the people through the leading party. If and when the party changes the leader, the new leader will automatically become the PM.

The monarch will summon that leader to the Palace to confirm this. No election is necessary. This does occur from time to time, usually when the existing leader loses the confidence of their party.

In 1990, for example, the Conservative Party replaced Margaret Thatcher with John Major, in 2016 Theresa May replaced David Cameron and in 2019 replaced Theresa May with Boris Johnson. In 2007 the Labour Party replaced Tony Blair with Gordon Brown.

Question 51

Explain the prime ministers authority in parliament

Answer 51

3- Parliament
Each new Parliament, including the losing parties, recognises the authority of the PM to lead the government. There is no formal procedure to confirm this as there is in many other political systems; it is simply ‘what happens’.
Parliament has no formal procedures for replacing one PM with another. All it can do is to dismiss the whole government through a vote of no confidence.

Question 52

Explain the prime ministers authority in relation to the people

Answer 52

The People
The PM is not directly elected. During a general election campaign, the people are being asked to choose between alternative candidates for the position, as well as the party.
Therefore, the PM does enjoy a degree of authority directly from the people. This causes a problem for prime ministers who rise to their position without a general election taking place.

Question 53

define prerogative power

Answer 53

Prerogative power- The powers formerly exercised by the monarch without constraint, now delegated to the Prime Minister of the day.
They include powers of patronage, conducting foreign policy and commanding the armed forces.

Question 54

Explain the source of power of the prime minister in relation prerogative powers

Answer 54

1- Prerogative powers
We have seen that the traditional authority of the monarch has long been delegated to the prime minister. This authority is often described as the royal prerogative.
When transferred to the PM, it becomes prerogative powers. These powers are not constrained and so can be freely exercised by the PM personally.
When exercising these powers the PM is representing the whole nation, which means the PM is effectively the temporary head of state.

Question 55

Explain the source of power of the PM in relation to party power

Answer 55

2- Party
The PM is the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons. There have been examples of a PM who was not the leader of the largest party, but the most recent one was in the 1930s (Labour’s Ramsay MacDonald).
Being a part leader enables the PM to have the power to take the lead in policy making.
For as long as the PM can carry their party with them, they therefore become chief policy maker.

Question 56

Explain the source of power of the PM in relation to patronage

Answer 56

Patronage
Patronage refers to the power an individual may enjoy to make important appointments to public offices. Having this ability grants power because it means that those who aspire to high office will tend to be loyal to the person who may appoint them.
Onceappointed, that loyalty remains, not least because disloyalty may end in dismissal. The PM enjoys patronage over hundreds of appointments, including government ministers, peers, and the heads of various state bodies.
It means that the majority of the MPs and peers in the PM’s party will tend to be loyal to them. This gives the PM great power.

Question 57

Explain the source of the power of the PM in relation to parliament

Answer 57

Parliament
The PM is the leader of their party in Parliament. Clearly the larger the government’s parliamentary majority, the more power the PM derives from this fact, but all prime ministers gain some power from it.
If a government is unable to secure the passage of its legislation and financial plans through the House of Commons, it will lose power.
MPs are always aware of this and so those who represent the governing party tend to support the PM most of the time to ensure survival of their government- e.g. Theresa May received the backing of her party in no confidence votes in 2019 but failed to have backbencher support in other votes regarding Brexit.
Another example was in 1995 when John Major, the Conservative PM, became concerned and angered by the disloyalty of a number of his backbench MPs. He therefore resigned as party leader, but not as PM. In the subsequent leadership election he was re-elected. This was a great boost to his authority and his power. He had re-asserted his control over Parliament

Question 58

Explain the source of power of the PM in relation to collective cabinet responsibility

Answer 58

5- Collective Cabinet responsibility
The PM is the senior member of the cabinet. This is not surprising as the PM has control over the cabinet’s membership and its agenda.
These are prerogative powers as described above. It has become a convention of the UK Constitution that all members of Cabinet should be collectively responsible for all the decisions a government makes.
Under normal circumstances no individual member of the cabinet may publicly disagree with any government decision or policy (they may disagree privately). If they do, they face dismissal or must resign in order to have an independent voice.
This endows the PM with great power as their central government body presents a united front. With no public opposition from colleagues, the PM gains considerable power.

Question 59

state the formal powers of the prime minister (the powers all prime ministers enjoy)

Answer 59

FORMAL POWERS:

• patronage
• chairmanship of the cabinet
• foreign policy leader
• commander in chief (although this may be changing)
• calling elections as a long as parliament agrees
• ability to call an early general election if parliament approves with a two thirds majority or passes a vote of no confidence

Question 60

state the informal powers (the powers that vary from one individual to another)

Answer 60

FORMAL POWERS:

• controlling government policy
• controlling the legislative agenda
• economic leadership
• national leadership in times of crisis

Question 61

define commander in chief

Answer 61

Commander in Chief- This term describes the person who has ultimate control over the deployment of the armed forces including the security and intelligence services.
In the UK the prime minister holds the position, delegated by the monarch.

Question 62

state examples of the exercise of prerogative powers

Answer 62

1982 - Margaret Thatcher sent a task force to liberate the Falkland islands in the south Atlantic from Argentine occupation

1999 - Tony Blair committed Uk troops to intervene in the Kosovo war in the Balkans

2000 - Tony Blair sent troops to Sierra Leone in West Africa to save the elected government from an armed insurgence

2003 - Tony Blair committed UK armed forces to assist the US in the invasion of Iraq to depose of Saddam Hussein

2011 - David cameron committed the RAF to air strikes in the Libyan Civil war to save the ‘democratic’ rebels

2017 - Theresa May called an early general election and successfully secured the decision with a two thirds majority vote in the house of commons. Boris Johnson did the same in 2019

Question 63

Explain the PM as a commander in chief

Answer 63

The PM being the the Commander in Chief has appeared to change in recent years.
It was revealed in 2013 that the Syrian government was using chemical wepons against civilian populations in the civil war there. In response PM David Cameron stated his desire to use air power.
On this occasion he sought the approval of Parliament. He did not need this approval constitutionally, but he felt it was politically important to do so.
To Cameron’s surprise, the House of Commons voted against such action. He respected the decision and cancelled any proposed intervention. It appeared that centuries of the prerogative power to command the armed forces had been set aside. Parliament seemed to be taking over military policy…

This exchange took place between the opposition leader, Ed Miliband and Prime Minister David Cameron at the end of the debate on intervention in Syria in August 2013
Miliband- ‘Can the prime minister confirm to the House that he will not use the royal prerogative to order the UK to be part of military action, given the will of the House that is expressed tonight?’
Cameron- ‘I can give that assurance…I also believe in respecting the will of this House of Commons…It is clear to me that the British Parliament, reflectingthe views of the British people, does not wish to see military intervention. I get that and I will act accordingly.’

Two years later, in December 2015, Cameron again asked Parliament for approval for air strikes in Syria, this time against ISIS/Daesh.
Parliament gave its approval and the strikes began.
However, the fact that Cameron felt the need to consult MPs demonstrated the vulnerability of his position.

Question 64

Explain the powers of the Uk cabinet

Answer 64

The cabinet has a number of important roles but, surprisingly perhaps, it has relatively few powers of its own.
This is largely because the PM has his or her own rival powers.
We can identify a number of powers that the cabinet has, whatever the prime minister may try to do.
These are as follows…

It is the cabinet that legitimises the government policy and interprets what government policy actually is. The prime minister will have a say in this, but ultimately it is a cabinet power to organise the presentation of official policy.

Again, although the PM has influence, it is a specific power of the cabinet to determine the government’s legislative agenda- what policies are to be implemented first and which can wait.

The cabinet does not have absolute power to remove a PM. There is no such thing as a ‘vote of no confidence’ in the cabinet. Nevertheless cabinet can effectively drive a PM out of power by refusing to suuport them in public. The removal of the PM has two main procedures: either forcing the PM to resignthrough public criticism (as happened to Tony Blair in 2007) or provoking a leadership contest in the governing party which the PM may lose (as happened to Margaret Thatcher in 1990).

The cabinet does have the power to overrule a PM if it cannot summon up enough political will and sufficient support for an alternative policy. In 2015 PM David Cameron was forced by his cabinet to suspend collective responsibility in the EU referendum campaign to allow ministers to express their own personal views.

Apart from those described above, the cabinet does not really have any powers of its own. Government power is effectively shared between the PM and cabinet.

Question 65

Explain the role of government departments

Answer 65

The role of government departments

As well the prime minister, the government comprises cabinet and junior ministers. Cabinet ministers will generally be in charge of departments of state, such as the Treasury, Home Office, Foreign Office, Education or Transport. The function of government departments is to manage that particular area of government and to develop policy.

In addition to this, each ministerial team will make proposals for legislation concerning their department. This will include the introduction of major primary legislation into Parliament and also the amending of existing legislation, known as secondary or delegated legislation.

The key figures in a department are the secretary of state, who takes ultimate responsibility for the department, and then his or her junior ministers, who are also bound by the principles of collective ministerial responsibility. Each department will be able to rely on the support of the civil service, headed by a chief secretary. Unlike political advisers, the civil service of defined by the principles of neutrality, anonymity and permanence, which means that civil servants should provide impartial advice, to any government, on policy development and implementation. They are therefore not expected to be held accountable for the actions of a department since the overall focus of policy and administration should have been determined by elected politicians.

Question 66

Explain individual ministerial responsibility

Answer 66

Individual ministerial responsibility

According to the principle of individual ministerial responsibility, ministers are accountable to Parliament for the actions of their department. This means that ministers must respond honestly to questions asked by members of the legislature. They should, therefore, when required, justify the actions of their department during parliamentary debate, in written response and by appearing before select committees.

Individual ministerial responsibility also means that a minister should take personal responsibility for serious mistakes that occur within his or her department and of which they should have been aware.

The extent to which a minister can be held personally responsible for all major errors that take place within their department is controversial. Harry S. Truman (US President 1945-53) had a sign on his desk in the Oval Office with the words ‘The buck stops here’, and on a number of occasions secretaries of state have resigned office when their departments have been seriously at fault in terms of either their administration or policy.

Question 67

Explain an example of administrative failure

Answer 67

In 1954, Sir Thomas Dugdale resigned as minister of agriculture over the Crichel Down affair, when his department failed to return land to its rightful owner after it had been compulsorily purchased to be a bombing range before the Second World War. Although Dugdale’s civil servants were the ones mostly at fault, Dugdale resigned, telling Parliament ‘I, as minister, must accept full responsibility for any mistakes in my department, just as, when my officials bring off any success on my behalf, I take full credit for them’

Question 68

Explain an example of policy failure

Answer 68

Policy failure

In 1982, Lord Carrington resigned as foreign secretary from Margaret Thatcher’s government in the immediate aftermath of Argentina’s invasion of the Falklands. The reason for his resignation was that the Foreign Office should have been more aware of Argentina’s intentions and should have made clearer what the response of the British government would be to ant military intervention. In his resignation letter her wrote:

‘The Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands has led to strong criticism in Parliament and in the press of the Government’s policy. In my view, much of the criticism is unfounded. But I have been responsible for the conduct of that policy and I think it right I should resign’.

Question 69

state example of a resignation

Answer 69

In 2018, Theresa May’s Home Secretary, Amber Rudd, resigned when she admitted that she had not told the truth to the House of Commons, when she stated that there were no Home Office targets for removing illegal immigrants. In reality these targets did exist but in her resignation letter to the prime minister , Rudd claimed that she had not been sufficiently aware of them, leading to inadvertently misleading the House of Commons. This resignation demonstrates the importance of a minister being fully aware of what is happening within their department so they can honestly represent it to Parliament.

A minister can also be held accountable for their personal conduct and if this brings the government into disrepute they are expected to take responsibility for their actions and resign. The opening paragraph of the Ministerial Code of Conduct makes clear that, ‘Ministers of the Crown are expected to maintain high standards of public behaviour and to behave in a way that upholds the highest standards of propriety’. Even minsiters who might have preferred to try and cling onto power have often resigned because of the intensity with which the media will speculate on their future in an era of ‘24 hour news’.

Question 70

State examples of private going public scandals

Answer 70

When private goes public

Chris Huhne, Energy Secretary, 2012

Chris Huhne was forced to resign from the coalition government over media claims that he had perverted the course of justice by colluding with his former wife, Vicky Pryce, so that she took responsibility for his speeding offence. Both were convicted and sent to prison for the crime.

Michael Fallon, Defence Secretary, 2017

The surprise resignation of Michael Fallon from Theresa May’s government was caused by his acceptance that in the past his behaviour towards women had ‘fallen below the high standards that we require of the Armed Forces’. In order to limit the political impact of any allegations being publicly made against him, he resigned from the government.

Priti Patel, Overseas Development Secretary, 2017 (now defence secretary 2022)

Priti Patel resigned from Theresa May’s government over a series of unofficial private meetings that she had had with Israeli ministers, including the Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu. Patel’s failure to report the meetings also put her directly in contravention of the minister’s code’s requirement that ‘any significant content should be passed back to the department as soon as possible after the event’. Patel is currently being accused of bullying a senior civil servant in her current role of Home Secretary under Boris Johnson. An industrial tribunal and therefore investigation was likely to follow but never happened. Patel was also accussed of bullying a civil servant but never was held accountable

Question 71

Explain collective ministerial responsibility

Answer 71

Collective ministerial responsibility

According to the principle of collective ministerial responsibility, if the government loses a vote of confidence in the House of Commons, the whole government must resign. This memorably happened on 28th March 1979 when the Labour government of James Callaghan lost a vote of confidence by 311 to 310 votes, precipitating a sudden general election.

• Collective ministerial responsibility also requires that discussions within cabinet must be kept secret in order to maintain the integrity of government.
• A core aspect of collective ministerial responsibility is that members of the government must support agreed policies even if in private they may have been highly critical of them. This is important in maintaining the unity of the government since without it the government would appear weak and divided. In political terms, unity represents strength and so collective ministerial responsibility is fundamental to the survival of the government. If collective responsibility did not operate, the authority of the prime minister would be greatly undermined.
• If a minister cannot bring themselves to publicly agree with a government policy or the way in which the government is being run then they have no choice but to resign and return to the back benches. This has happened on numerous occasions, with varied consequences for the authority of the prime minister.

Question 72

state an example of high profile ministerial resignations over collective responsiblity

Answer 72

High profile ministerial resignations over collective responsibility

Peter Thorneycroft, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1958

In 1958, the chancellor of the exchequer, Peter Thorneycroft, resigned from the Macmillan government because he could not publicly support what he regarded as excessive public spending of the government. Two other Treasury ministers, Enoch Powell and Nigel Birch, resigned with him. Macmillan dismissed the resignations as ‘little difficulties’ and the government went on to win the 1959 general election by a landslide.

Geoffrey Howe, Leader of the House of Commons and Deputy Prime Minister, 1990

The pro-European Geoffrey Howe resigned from the Thatcher government on 1st November 1990, just two days after Margaret Thatcher delivered her famous assault on European federalism in her ‘No, no, no’ speech. In his resignation speech to the House of Commons on 13th November, Howe explained that he could no longer serve under an increasingly eurosceptic prime minister. Howe’s resignation prompted the leadership challenge of Michael Heseltine and by the end of November Thatcher had been forced from office.

Robin Cook, Leader of the House of Commons, 2003

In 2003, Robin Cook resigned from Tony Blair’s government over its preparations for war against Iraq. Cook was unconvinced by claims that Saddam Hussein was a threat to the UK’s national interests and in his resignation speech explained that ‘I intend to join those tomorrow night who will vote against military action now. It is for that reason, and for that reason alone, and with a heavy heart, that I resign from the government.’ Jeremy Corbyn, among others, lent him his support. The UK continued its preparations for war and Blair won a third general election victory in 2005.

Question 73

Explain the cabinet

Answer 73

The cabinet consists of 20-25 senior government ministers who generally head large departments of state. It usually meets once a week for no more than two hours, on a Thursday morning, although in a crisis it can also be summoned. The prime minister sets the agenda, chairs and sums up the meeting and then approves the cabinet secretary’s minutes. Votes are not taken and although their can be intense debate and disagreement within cabinet, the prime minister will expect all present to publicly support the government’s decisions and policies based on the principle of collective ministerial responsibility. If a member of the cabinet cannot publicly agree a policy determined by the cabinet they should have to resign and join the back benches, where they will be free to criticise the government.

Question 74

state cabinets roles

Answer 74

The cabinet has a number of important roles:

• Since the decisions are taken elsewhere within the executive, a core function of the cabinet is to approve them, so providing them with the seal of government policy. This is an important way of maintaining the unity of the government. The cabinet provides the key forum in which government policies are legitimised.
• The cabinet will also determine key issues of policy. In 1976, James Callaghan allowed the cabinet to freely debate whether or not to accept a loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). All sides were given the opportunity to present their cases on the understanding that at the end of the process a consensus would be reached and that would be the government policy. In 2018, May summoned the cabinet to Chequers, the prime minister’s country retreat, in order to determine what the government’s bargaining position should be in the final stages of Brexit.
• A key role of cabinet is to decide how the government will determine business. If controversial legislation is going to be introduced into Parliament, the cabinet will need to discuss how it is best presented and ministers will need to know when they should be available on the front benches to enthusiastically support it. The chief whip will also explain whether there is likely to be a sufficient government majority if a bill is especially contentious and so the cabinet may debate any concessions they may need to make in order to win parliamentary support.
• Occasionally, if a dispute between two departments of state is proving impossible to resolve, then the issue may be brought to cabinet as a final court of appeal in order to resolve it. This was particularly significant when departmental conflicts had to be resolved during the 2010-15 coalition.
• Prime ministers also appoint cabinet committees to develop and implement specific policy. This can be an effective way of enhancing prime ministerial authority, since the prime minister determines the membership and decides the number and remit of the committees. Theresa May, for example, took the chair of the European Union Exit and Trade committee and the National Security Council. The decisions of cabinet committees possess the same legitimacy as decisions of the full cabinet.

Question 75

How is cabinet selected?

Answer 75

How is the cabinet selected?

Deciding who is in the cabinet is an important way in which a prime minister puts their own stamp upon government. However, even here, the prime minister does not have a completely free hand. As Walter Bagehot put it in his seminal work ‘The English Constitution’ (1867), ‘The position of most men in Parliament forbids their being invited into cabinet; the position of a few men ensures their being invited’. In other words there will be some high profile ‘big beasts’ whose exclusion would be politically impossible, while other members of the legislature would never aspire to high office.

A prime minister will be under great pressure to include in their cabinet influential colleagues and dominant personalities. Harold Wilson knew that George Brown, who he had defeated for the party leadership , was rated more highly than him by many Labour supporters - ‘Better George Brown drunk than Harold Wilson sober’ was a phrase used by many party members- and so he appointed him Deputy Prime Minister. In 1997 it would have been inconceivable for Tony Blair not to appoint Gordon Brown as chancellor of the exchequer, given his grasp of economics and agreement they had famously reached at the Granita restaurant in 1994 to share the two top jobs in government.

Question 76

How does a prime minister stamp their authority on cabinet?

Answer 76

A prime minister will also want to stamp their authority on cabinet by advancing to senior positions key allies whom they can rely on to provide unwavering support in a crisis.
• Margaret Thatcher relied totally on the advice and support of William ‘Willie’ Whitelaw, her first home secretary, while she advanced to key positions politicians like Norman Tebbit (Empoloyment), and Cecil Parkinson (Party Chairman) who loyally shared her political views.
• After his second landslide general election victory, Tony Blair advanced the career of Labour modernisers, such as Alan Johnson (Education) and Alan Milburn (Health) in order to provide his government with continued reforming momentum.
• When she became prime minister in 2016, Theresa May was determined to remove the ‘Notting Hill’ public school ‘chumocracy’ that David Cameron had cultivated. She therefore sacked George Osborne as chancellor of the exchequer in order to make her administration appear less elitist.

Question 77

Do prime ministers keep political rivals in cabinet? if so, why?

Answer 77

A prime minister can be well advised to also include potential rivals in government since this binds them to collective ministerial responsibility so they cannot publicly criticise the government. By rewarding them with high office they may even be able to cultivate their loyalty. Although they had a stormy relationship, Blair knew that by having Brown in his cabinet was much safer than having him on the back benches. Margaret Thatcher was considerably weakened when Michael Heseltine resigned from her government. From 2016 to 2018, Theresa May managed to ignore Boris Johnson’s rather broad interpretation of collective responsibility on the understanding that her position was made safer by having him inside the government than outside.

Party unity is vital, so a prime minister will need to balance their cabinet in order to avoid alienating certain sections of the party. This is well exemplified by Tony Blair’s inclusion of John Prescott, who served as deputy prime minister from 1997-2007. Prescott was from the working class left of the Labour Party and had had a career in the merchant navy (he was personal steward to Sir Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary and future Prime Minister, when he sailed on a voyage after the Suez Crisis). He gained influence as a militant member of the National Union of Seamen and then entered Parliament. By appointing Prescott to such a prominent role in government, Blair was able to reassure the left of the party that New Labour had not entirely abandoned its socialist ideology. Similarly, and even after her third general election victory in 1987, Margaret Thatcher appreciated the importance of keeping one nation Conservatives in her cabinet, like Douglas Hurd.

Question 78

How significant is cabinet?

Answer 78

How significant is cabinet?

There are two conflicting interpretations of the influence of the cabinet in British politics. According to Walter Bagehot in ‘The English Constitution’, the cabinet is ‘the most powerful body in the state’, and the prime minister, rather than dominating it is essentially, the first among equals.

However, it has also been claimed that the relatively large size of the cabinet precludes constructive debate. This supports the view that it is more of a rubber stamp for policies which have already been determined elsewhere in the core executive rather than a sounding board for new ideas.

Especially since the government of Harold Wilson in the 1960s, the centrality of the cabinet in government (cabinet government) has been questioned. This is because prime ministers have acquired so many other sources of advice and information, and are now treated so presidentially by the media, that they will already have decided the focus and direction of their government without needing to talk it through with the cabinet. As a result of this it has been claimed that the UK now has a system of prime ministerial government rather than cabinet government.

The expansion of the prime minister’s Private Office has, in particular, provided an enhanced engine of government. In 1974, on his return to office, Harold Wilson set up the Policy Unit in Downing Street in order to provide him with his own support and advice in developing political strategy. Tony Blair introduced a number of initiatives to further increase control from the centre, and the most important phrase in government, it was half joked, became ‘Tony wants’.
• The position of chief of staff was established to co-ordinate government policy. Jonathan Powell, who held the position under Blair, explained that his appointment demonstrated ‘a change from a feudal system of barons to a more Napoleonic system’. His successors have all retained the role.
• The establishment of the Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit and Prime Minister’s Delivery Unit further challenged the autonomy of cabinet ministers by setting their departments targets and monitoring their performance. Although David Cameron abolished both roles because of fears of micro-management, he strengthened the Policy and Implementation Unit in order to ensure more coordinated government.
• The Press Office under Alastair Campbell became more prominent in government, ensuring that Downing Street had more control over how news stories were presented and responded to.

It would be wrong though to dismiss the influence of cabinet. Every cabinet is composed of the most powerful and influential members of a political party and a prime minister would be unwise to ignore the weight of political experience that the cabinet can provide. Members of the cabinet are also likely to be ambitious, and those heading powerful departments like the Home Office or Foreign Office are still likened to feudal barons with the independent authority to challenge a prime minister. In 2018, Jeremy Hunt actually refused Theresa May’s attempt to move him from the then Department of Health and even managed to expand his role to being Health and Social Care Secretary.

It is also important to remember that each prime minister will approach cabinet differently. Tony Blair, for example, had a clear vision of what he wanted to achieve as prime minister, as well as strong parliamentary majorities, and so the role of cabinet became more focused on how to report decisions that had already been made elsewhere.

In contrast, the more pragmatic John Major, after the 1992 general election, had only a 21 seat majority and a divided party and so had to work hard to establish a unity approach in cabinet in order to hold his government together. Theresa May, similarly had to balance a cabinet which was highly divided over Brexit, as well as coping with the loss of her own parliamentary majority in the 2017 general election. She therefore lacked the political capital to be able to dominate cabinet.

Question 79

State FOR arguments for the question: Does the cabinet play a central role in British Government?

Answer 79

FOR ARGUEMENTS:

• During political crises a prime minister will need to discuss all the options open to them with the cabinet, since the cabinet contains the accumulated wisdom of the government.

Following the Argentinean invasion of the Falkland Islands in April 1982, Margaret Thatcher summoned an emergency meeting of the cabinet to discuss all the diplomatic and military options open to the government.

When there is a controversial issue to be resolved, cabinet agreement is vital in order to ensure that the government is united. In 1976, James Callaghan’s cabinet thoroughly discussed the IMF loan, while John Major’s cabinet met in emergency session during the Black Wednesday economic crisis in 1992.

In 2018 Theresa May summoned the whole cabinet to Chequers in order to achieve a united approach to the sort of Brexit the government wanted to pursue.

On some occasions cabinet can challenge the authority of the prime minister. In 1969, a cabinet revolt stopped Harold Wilson from placing legal restraints on growing trade union power when it rejected the White Paper ‘In Place of Strife’.

In 1990, the failure of the cabinet to offer Margaret Thatcher its full support during Michael Heseltine’s leadership challenge prompted her resignation.

Question 80

state ARGUEMENTS for the question: Does the cabinet play a central role in British Government?

Answer 80

NO ARGUEMENTS:

• Although Harold Macmillan presented the image of calm and unflappability, he had a clear political agenda that he wanted to achieve. In just 6 years he appointed four chancellors of the exchequer, closely monitoring their approach to economic policy. On the appointment of his last chancellor, Reginald Maudling, Macmillan noted in his diary: ‘To my great pleasure (and surprise) the Treasury are now adopting my views.’ 10th August 1962

Harold Wilson liked to make decisions through a small body of core advisers in his Downing Street flat. This was known as the ‘kitchen cabinet’ and included key friends and allies such as his secretary Marcia Williams, press secretary Joe Haines and political adviser Bernard Donoughue.

Edward Heath saw himself as an efficient moderniser and so made key decisions with trusted advisers such as cabinet secretary Sir Robert Armstrong and his political secretary Douglas Hurd

Margaret Thatcher had a clear political vision of what she wanted to achieve and especially towards the end of her prime-ministership , pushed issues such as the poll tax through cabinet with insufficient discussion. The way in which she discouraged discussion during the Westland crisis also highlights her sometimes imperious and arrogant approach to cabinet government.

Tony Blair liked to make decisions quickly and was impatient with long discussions. He therefore discouraged cabinet discussion, preferring to have already made key decisions with ministers in bilateral meetings. This has often been referred to as ‘sofa government.’

Question 81

state two examples prime ministers can approach cabinet

Answer 81

Two examples of how prime ministers can approach cabinet

The IMF loan, 1976

In 1976, the Labour government was in turmoil over whether to accept a loan from the International Monetary Fund with its accompanying demands for stringent cuts in public spending. The chancellor of the exchequer, Denis Healey, argued that there was no alternative to the loan. However, Callaghan needed to prove that the government was united on the issue and so allowed the cabinet to fully debate the offer. The leading opponent of the loan, Tony Benn, noted in his diary on 1st December 1976 that Callaghan told the cabinet, ‘we shall have to rally to the majority view, whatever it is, or it will not be possible for me to carry on’.

The Westland Affair, 1986

During 1985 and 1986, the Department of State for Trade and Industry and the Department of Defence clashed over whether a British firm, Westland helicopters, should be sold to an American or European bid. The dispute proved to be irreconcilable so it went to cabinet to be resolved. However, Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine complained that Margaret Thatcher’s obvious bias towards the American bid undermined genuine cabinet debate and he spectacularly resigned during a meeting of cabinet on 9th January 1986, allegedly stating ‘I can no longer be a member of this cabinet’.

Question 82

To what extent is the prime minister the dominant force in politics?

Answer 82

To what extent is the prime minister the dominant force in politics?

The authority that a prime minister wields depends greatly on the circumstances in which they hold office. Harold Macmillan once quipped to a journalist that the power of a prime minister depends on ‘events, dear boy, events’, while Harold Wilson commented that a ‘week was a long time in politics’. It is therefore important to appreciate that although prime ministers can decisively move on the political agenda, they can also fall victim to a changing political environment.

Case study

‘Events, dear boy, events’.

In 1962, Harold Macmillan determined to give new energy to his government by sacking a third of his cabinet, including his chancellor of the exchequer, Selwyn Lloyd. Far from enhancing his authority, the decision gave the impression that Macmillan had lost his deft political touch and was in a panic. The young Liberal MP Jeremy Thorpe claimed that ‘ a greater love hath no man than he lay down his friends for his life’ and Macmillan’s reputation never recovered as the press went from referring to him as ‘Supermac’ to ‘Mac the Knife’. A year later the Profumo scandal, where Macmillan’s secretary of state for war, John Profumo, was forced to resign over an affair with Christine Keeler which seemed to threaten national security, further undermined Macmillan’s authority and following emergency surgery, he decided to resign office in October 1963.

Edward Heath

Edward Heath (1970-74) had a dominant personality, a loyal cabinet and a workable parliamentary majority, and was determined to modernise the UK. His most significant achievement was using the prestige of his office to negotiate the UK’s entry into the EEC in 1973. However, his authority was challenged by a remarkable series of misfortunes. Miners’ strikes in 1972 and again in 1974 threatened the nation’s energy supplies, while a dramatic rise in the cost of oil led to a huge increase in global inflation, undermining the government’s economic strategy. Faced by mounting industrial unrest, Heath called a snap general election in February 1974 which he lost by four seats to Harold Wilson.

James Callaghan

Following the resignation of Harold Wilson, James Callaghan became prime minister in 1976. Popular in the party and with a strong personal approval rating in the nation, he quickly stamped his authority on government. At the 1976 Labour Party Conference, he challenged the post-war economic consensus, telling delegates ‘The cosy world we were told would go on forever, where full employment would be guaranteed by the stroke of a chancellor’s pen, cutting taxes, deficit spending; that coy world is gone.’

The result of the speech was a sudden and dramatic change in government policy from high spending to deflationary measures. This commitment to deflation proved to be effective in starting to bring down inflation.

Callaghan, however, decided not to call a general election in the autumn of 1978, which he was widely expected to win. That winter the authority of his government was challenged by a series of damaging strikes and quickly became known as the Winter of Discontent. Abandoned by the Liberal Party and the nationalist parties, his minority government eventually lost a vote of confidence in the House of Commons, forcing Callaghan to call a general election at the worst possible time for the survival of his government.

John Major

When he replaced Margaret Thatcher as prime minister in 1990, John Major quickly changed the dynamic of the Conservative government. He ditched the unpopular poll tax and was widely praised for the way in which he negotiated an opt-out from the social chapter in the Maastricht Treaty. However, Major achieved only a 21 seat majority in the 1992 general election. This gave eurosceptic Conservative MPs the opportunity to disrupt ratification of the treaty, exposing growing divisions within the Conservative Party.

In June 1995, John Major resigned the leadership of the Conservative Party, telling his eurosceptic critics to either ‘put up or shut up’. One member of his cabinet, John Redwood, decided to take up the challenge, winning the support of 89 MP’s to Major’s 218 in a leadership ballot, further exposing the divisions and highlighting Major’s declining authority as prime minister.

Allegations of ministerial sleaze and constant media criticism, together with Tony Blair’s combative leadership of the Labour Party, further contributed to his decline.

David Cameron

As coalition prime minister, 2010-15, David Cameron succeeded in introducing major cuts to public expenditure as part of the government’s austerity programme. He also put the weight of his authority behind legislation allowing same-sex marriage in spite of opposition of large numbers of more traditionalist Conservative MPs. Coalition government placed considerable restraints on Cameron’s freedom to manoeuvre. As part of the Coalition Agreement he had to allow a referendum on electoral reform in 2011 and he failed to reform parliamentary boundaries when the Liberal Democrats withdrew their support. His failure to persuade Parliament to support the bombing of President Assad’s forces in Syria in 2013, following the use of chemical weapons, further demonstrated the limits on his authority.

Cameron’s promise to call a referendum on the UK’s membership of the EU probably helped to keep the Conservative Party united and helped him win the 2015 general election. However, the surprise vote for Brexit which provoked Cameron’s immediate resignation on 24th June 2016 highlights just how much a prime minister cannot always control events. Cameron campaigned hard for ‘Remain’ and the victory of ‘Leave’ meant, he said, that it would not be right for him to be the ‘captain that steers our country to its next destination’.

Question 83

Explain the cabinet during coalition

Answer 83

what happened in the unique period when there was a coalition government in the UK between 2010 and 2015.
After the 2010 general election, no party enjoyed an overall majority in the House of Commons. It was therefore necessary to form a coalition which would command such a majority.
The alternative would have been a minority government. Minority government is a daunting prospect. Such a government has to build a majority support among MPs for each individual legislative proposal. This is extremely difficult, and the government constantly faces the imminent prospect of defeat.
This was the case for the Conservative Party government under Theresa May and Boris Johnson, between 2017-19, when they lost their majority after the 2017 general election and relied on the DUP to support them on a supply and confidence basis, in other words on a vote by vote basis apart from budget votes when it was guaranteed support.

Minority governments have survived in Scotland and Wales, and there was a brief minority Labour government in the UK from February until October 1974, but they are rare exceptions.
So in 2010 there was a hung parliament, a coalition was quickly agreed between the Conservative and Liberal Democrat leaderships. The arrangements for the coalition were as follows:-
As leader of the larger of the coalition partners, David Cameron was to be PM, Nick Clegg, leader of the Liberal Democrats was to be deputy PM.
A period of negotiation followed during which an agreed set of policies was developed- the Coalition Agreement

Cabinet places were apportioned to the two parties in the ratio of 22:5, Conservative to Liberal Democrat. The Liberal Democrats were given five specific ministerial positions. Non-cabinet posts were apportioned on a similar basis.
David Cameron would control appointments or dismissals to the 22 Conservative posts and Nick Clegg controlled the 5 Liberal Democrat posts.
Collective responsibility applied to all policies included in the Coalition Agreement. On other policies, ministers from the two parties were permitted to disagree publicly.

Eventually, as the 2015 general election approached, the coalition cabinet weakened and began to fragment.
However, the government did, against many predictions, last for 5 years and it was the temporary restoration of cabinet government that helped to maintain stability

Question 84

what new roles were created in cabinet during coalition

Answer 84

Ironically, the coalition proved to be something of a brief ‘golden age’ for the cabinet.
Suddenly, after years and years of becoming less and less significant, being marganlised within government and ignored by prime ministers, the cabinet was important again.
This was largely because the cabinet had roles it had never had before

Disputes within the coalition were inevitable. The cabinet was one of the key places where these could be resolved.
Presentation of policy became difficult, so the cabinet had to develop ways in which agreements between parties could be explained.
If there was a dispute as to whether a policy had in fact been agreed between the coalition partners (and would therefore be subject to collective responsibility) cabinet would be called in to clarify the issue.
David Cameron did work with a kind of ‘inner cabinet’. This consisted of himself, George Osborne (Chancellor of the Exchequer), Nick Clegg (Deputy PM & Liberal Democrat leader) and Danny Alexander, Osborne’s Liberal Democrat deputy. They were collectively known as the ‘Quad’. Cabinet is too big to serve the PM constantly, so such inner groups of serious ministers are common.

Question 85

explain what is meant by hung parliament

Answer 85

Hung Parliament- This describes a situation where, after a general election, no one party has an overall majority of seats in the House of Commons.
It means either a minority government or a coalition must be formed

Question 86

explain what is meant by inner cabinet

Answer 86

Inner cabinet- A small group of very senior ministers, including the prime minister, who dominate the development of government policy.

Question 87

explain how the prime minister selects cabinet

Answer 87

Selecting the members of the Cabinet is one of the key roles played by a PM.
If they get this wrong, they will suffer difficulties ranging from poor policy making to constant threats to their own position.
It may seem simple, to choose the best men and women for the job: but there is more to it than that.
Essentially PM’s have three ways of constructing a Cabinet…

1- To pack the Cabinet with the PM’s own allies. This ensures unity and bolsters the PM’s power, but it may lack critical voices who can improve decision making.
After 1982 this was the tactic adopted by Margaret Thatcher (1979-90), an especially dominant Prime Minister with a great singularity of purpose. Tony Blair (1997-2007) adopted a similar approach as had Boris Johnson lately, by packing his Cabinet with loyal, Brexit supporting ministers.

2- To pick a balanced cabinet that reflects the different policy tendencies in the ruling party. When Theresa May became PM in 2016, she chose such a cabinet, which included some of her former adversaries in the Brexit referendum such as Boris Johnson, David Davis, Andrea Leadsom, and Liam Fox.
It was especially importantfor her to include members who were both in favour of and against leaving the EU. She did keep some key allies close to her including Phillip Hammond as Chancellor, and Amber Rudd as Home Secretary. John Major (1990-1997) was forced into choosing a similarly varied cabinet.

3- To pick a cabinet of the best possible people. Such a cabinet has not been seen since the 1960s and 1970s when Harold Wilson (1964-70 and 1974-76) and James Callaghan (1976-79) assembled a group of ‘all the talents’.
Prime Ministers have complete patronage powers so they can reshuffle their cabinets at will. Some prime ministers have changed the personnel in this way annually.
Dismissing and appointing new ministers in this way is a device prime ministers can use for asserting and re-asserting their authority, as well as ensuring the quality of government.

Question 88

explain what is meant by reshuffle

Answer 88

Reshuffle- A reshuffle occurs when a prime minister changes the make-up of their government.
A major reshuffle is when a number of cabinet members are dismissed, appointed or have their jobs changed.

Question 89

Explain the changing cabinet relationship through periods of political history

Answer 89

We can divide the recent history of the relationship between prime ministers and their cabinets into three periods. This is as follows:-
1- Up to the 1960s
The PM was seen as ‘first among equals’, in other words the dominant member of cabinet but not able to command government completely.
PM’s were aware they had to carry their cabinets with them and so had to allow genuine debate among ministers.
This was often charcterised as ‘cabinet government’.

2- 1960s-2010s
This period is often described as one of ‘prime ministerial government’.
PM’s were expected to dominate government completely.
There had to be a cabinet and decisions had to be legitimised by the cabinet, but it was not expected that the cabinet would act as a collective body, but that it should collectively support the PM.
Successive PM’s found ways of dominating the cabinet or simply sidelining them so it was relatively insignificant.

This is not to say that individual ministers could not be powerful, but that as a cabinet as a body was not powerful.
Former Labour cabinet minister, Mo Mowlem, summed this up in 2001, when describing how PM Tony Blair managed the cabinet-
‘Mr Blair makes decisions with a small coterie of people, advisers, just like the President of the United States. He doesn’t go back to cabinet, he isn’t inclusive in terms of other cabinet ministers’. (Guardian, 17 November 2001)

Three styles of prime ministerial domination stood out in this period:
Harold Wilson (1964-70 & 1974-76) manipulated cabinet by controlling the agenda and discussions, and by reaching agreements with ministers outside the meetings.
Margaret Thatcher (1979-90) dominated the cabinet through the force of her will and by ruthlessly removing or marginalising her opponents.
Tony Blair (1997-2007) marginalised cabinet. He adopted a style known as ‘sofa politics’ whereby he would develop ideas with a few advisers and senior ministers outside the cabinet in informal discussions and then present the cabinet with a fait accompli.

3- 2010- 2019
We have seen that the coalition cabinet of 2010-15 restored much of the importance of cabinet. Since 2010 the cabinet has become more significant.
Lacking a decisive majority, the PM has had to seek consensus within government and so ‘prime ministerial government’ is at an end for the time being.
In 2016-17 Theresa May attempted to dominate the governmnet machinery depite her small parliamentary majority but, having failed to retain that majority in the June 2017 election, it was clear that she would have to govern with the full co-operation of her cabinet.
Now that Boris Johnson enjoys a large Parliamentary majority, it is likely he will revert back to one of the earlier models of controlling cabinet.

Question 89

Explain the changing cabinet relationship through periods of political history

Answer 89

We can divide the recent history of the relationship between prime ministers and their cabinets into three periods. This is as follows:-
1- Up to the 1960s
The PM was seen as ‘first among equals’, in other words the dominant member of cabinet but not able to command government completely.
PM’s were aware they had to carry their cabinets with them and so had to allow genuine debate among ministers.
This was often charcterised as ‘cabinet government’.

2- 1960s-2010s
This period is often described as one of ‘prime ministerial government’.
PM’s were expected to dominate government completely.
There had to be a cabinet and decisions had to be legitimised by the cabinet, but it was not expected that the cabinet would act as a collective body, but that it should collectively support the PM.
Successive PM’s found ways of dominating the cabinet or simply sidelining them so it was relatively insignificant.

This is not to say that individual ministers could not be powerful, but that as a cabinet as a body was not powerful.
Former Labour cabinet minister, Mo Mowlem, summed this up in 2001, when describing how PM Tony Blair managed the cabinet-
‘Mr Blair makes decisions with a small coterie of people, advisers, just like the President of the United States. He doesn’t go back to cabinet, he isn’t inclusive in terms of other cabinet ministers’. (Guardian, 17 November 2001)

Three styles of prime ministerial domination stood out in this period:
Harold Wilson (1964-70 & 1974-76) manipulated cabinet by controlling the agenda and discussions, and by reaching agreements with ministers outside the meetings.
Margaret Thatcher (1979-90) dominated the cabinet through the force of her will and by ruthlessly removing or marginalising her opponents.
Tony Blair (1997-2007) marginalised cabinet. He adopted a style known as ‘sofa politics’ whereby he would develop ideas with a few advisers and senior ministers outside the cabinet in informal discussions and then present the cabinet with a fait accompli.

Question 90

explain what is meant by sofa government

Answer 90

Sofa politics- A style of governing attributed to Tony Blair, but common to other prime ministers such as Gordon Brown.
It refers to the practice of conducting informal meetings with colleagues outside cabinet, often with private advisors in attendance, so as to control policy making.

Question 91

explain the ways the prime minister can control cabinet

Answer 91

In theory PM’s have several levers they can use to control cabinet. These include the following:
The use of patronage means the PM can promote supporters into cabinet, remove opponents and so demand loyalty.
The PM has a large machinery of policy-making support within Downing Street, which they can use to support their own position against isolated ministers.
The PM controls the cabinet agenda.
Nevertheless, as we have seen, the degree to which PM’s can successfully use these powers can vary greatly according to circumstances.

Question 92

assess the prime minister powers

Answer 92

Question 93

assess the prime minister powers in relation to contemporary events

Answer 93

There are also a number of external factors that determine how much power the PM can exercise. These include the following:-
Devolution, as it develops further, gradually erodes the power of both the PM and the UK government as a whole. When Scotland and Wales develop legislative powers there will be large parts of the country outside central control.
While the UK was a member of the EU the powers of UK government were limited as large areas of policy were in the hands of the Council of European Ministers. Now the UK has left the EU these powers will be repatriated, offering a considerable boost to the PM’s and cabinet’s ability to shape policy and determine the course of events

Similarly, the UK’s membership of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and especially the country’s close relationship with the US, limit the UK’s foreign policy options.PM’s and cabinet must take into account the country’s main allies when conducting foreign policy. The UK’s involvement in the Middle East is an important example.
Back at home, the extent to which the cabinet can shape policy independently of the PM varies according the position of the PM her or himself. A dominant PM , as we have seen above, narrows the cabinet’s scope for policy determination. When PM’s are weak, the cabinet can begin to dictate policy more effectively.
Events significantly affect the power of the Cabinet and PM. This is mainly true of economic policy. In the early 1980s, early 1990s and after 2008, economic policy was dominated by the problems of economic recession