primate behavour and ecology test Flashcards
-key themes definition animal behaviour
-animals
-movement activity
-observable from outside
-reaction to stimuli
-individual
Is there a clear definition of behavior
-no mixed views what should be include
-needs an increase in discussion, what actually is behavour
what two types behavour
-innate
-learn
What is operant conditioning
-trial and error learning
-reinforcment
eg food appears contue to act that way
classical conditioning
associate neutral responce with stimulus leaned behavour
learn association
involuntary behaviour e.g producing saliva when bell for food in dog
fixed action pattern
innate
triggered stimulus
universal specie
eg goose save egg role nest
is imprinting innate?
yes will imprint but also envi what sees first will effect what imprints onto
define habituation
decrease intensity, respond to the stimulus with repeated behaviour
what are 4 levels to understand behavour
-function
-cause
-development
-history
what are mechanistic causes behavour
-stimulus response
-neurobiology
-hormone response
what phylogentic constraints on behaviur
- influence ancestors on descendents
-limit ability certian traits to evolve
ultimate explanation
why behavour exists
proximate explanation
how it works
whats optimality model
envi fixed animal respond
animal find best way respond envi
behave maximise fitnes
game theory model
behavour depend on stratagies others
density dependent outcomes
what does moose prioritize when choosing where to feed forest and lake
where gain most energy possible while considering other factors
whats marginal value theorom for patch distribution foraging
-forage in patch until rate return falls to average level= stay until no extra value of patch
nash equilibrum
is a non-cooperative game in which two or more players will achieve an optimal solution only if they do not change their initial strategy and the other players also do the same.
-most optimum stratagy not always chosen
evolutionary stable strategy
adopted all members of group cannot be invaded other stratagy
agnosistic conflict
physical conflict
(oddensive, defensive, submissive)
aggressive conflict
behavour threaten deliver physical injury
3 levels red deer conflict
1)roaring
2)parralel walking
3) fighting
how many red deer interactions not end in fight
70%
Why do deer stretch their neck when they roar
make them seem bigger than they are
hawk
fight until injured
dove
display until attacked
when will species fight
if value overweigh costs
when do indivual choose hawk or dove
depend context / individual conditon
how many hawks and doves
vary in the population until they meet the optimal, low chance of meeting another hawk that’s bigger than you
competitor assymetries: uncorrlelated
- unequil arbatory criteria
eg ‘owner’ vs ‘terrirtory holder’c
correlated symmetries
unequil on a property related to winning a contest
what burgeosis stratagyy
owner territory hawk, intruder dove. alsways respect ownership ess stratagy to high cost if fight
when does chance fihting invrease
when hungry
little to loose
high value recourse
how long should dung fly wait for a mate
evolved wiat amount time all get mate sucess
why do animals display
give time to weigh up likly hood win, give chance nack out if think be to costantly
= fight only occur animals closely matched
how sleder loris show agression
voice vocalisations
what is win and loser effect
if win one fight more likly to go on and win again
what happens animal loose fight
change strategy from hawk to dove, and run away first
what hormone effect winner and looser
winner= teresterone go up
loser- cortisol go up
why do chimps act lethally
try protect and grow territory
what benefits lethal violence
elimnation rivals
reduce coalition power
increase future chance winning
dyadic
relationship between two individuals
why have dominant indivdual
easy way to resolve conflict without having to fight
help reduce chances of serious injury
what different structure if hirarchy
-linear
-triangular
-complex
how can number males effect despotism
lots males less despotic to many equally matched compertitors
what are the benefits of high social rank
-preferential access to food
-best position when moving in environment
-increased grooming
-rrproductivly active younger (female babies)
-high rank offspring more likly to live
-more children
-low stress
how is stress related to dominance
higher dominance, lower stress, all about the very top ranking individual
how mother daughters and rank related
mothers support daughters = inherent her rank
when do females become dominant
-restricted mating
-unstable and eratic cliamtes
what patches fruit like
small patches, scattered
What are the patches’ leaves like
close together
how do patches vary
-nutrient
-variability (constant or seasonal)
-distribution
whats scramble competion
1 animal tries to exploit before others come
whats contest competion
interefence stop others acessing recourse
When do foragers move on from a large patch
stay at larger patch until do just aswell feeding smaller patch on their own
how do sticklebacks feed uneven food
distrubute themselves until get max rate of gain
how doese food availibity and territory link
if territry poor food need to keep larger area to maintain same food benefits
How territorial sunbird
territorial to point gaining net benefits from defending territory
when not beneficial to defend territory
-recources scarce= long travel time
-high pressure from intruders
how good being scrounger if you are ruddy turnstone
best of bad job
frequency dependent selcetion scroungers
populations should equalise optimum amount scroungers and producers in a population
what type stratagy scroungers
not fixed stratagy indivuals can switch depending on what is optimum for them in their specific environment
day range
distance traveled per m/km day
whats home range
the area encompassed all day ranges
whats advantagees having home ranges
-build up k
site fidelity
local k, food resources, escape routes, potential mates
is time spent in area and importanc elinked
no
eg mosse must gain sodium from lake plants, but doesn’t spend that much time there
what effects size home range
-type of diet
-habitat quality
-food distribution
-group size
-body weight
how group size effect home range?
larger group = larger home range
What are different dietary strategies for NHP
-insectivores
-frugivores
-folivores
-gumnivores
-gramnivores
why nhp eat fruit
-energy
carbs
lipids
vitimans
minerals
water
where do NHP get protien from
-leaves
-insects
-meat
feature young leaves food
-more toxins
-more protien to fbre ratio
features old leaves food
more fibre
what type food bigger bodied NHP eat
per kg bodey weight need les energy = survive low quality food
what different food stratagies NHP
-max energy
-max protein
-avoid metabolites
-limit fibre intake
-nutrient balancing
how seasonality effect food?
affects availability:
-abundance
-distribution
-relative mix food items
how do primates change their food due to seasonality
-change amount high quality low quality food
ranging
grouping
how long should a study be looking at diet
-at least a whole year
define fall back food
foods that primates utilise during periods low food availiability
what type range do frugivores need
large range = fruit is widely distributed
whats socioecology
behavior live group depend food and predation
how can grade animals sociaecology
grade animals based on food types
what ecological forces primate socioecology
-food
-predator
-parasites
why live in groups (socioecology)
-provide protection from predators
-help groups defend food resources
-protection infantacide
relationships big groups and access to food
more compition for food
more tume feeding
groups increase fitness if
benefit between group contest outweigh costs within group contest
what will group size depend on
-the costs:
balance of predatation risk and feeding compition
why do individuals stay in groups
along as more benefits being in group compared to being on own
what is folivon paradox
folivores tend to live smaller groups than frugivores similar body size
possilble reason folivon paradox
no one knows why live small groups but lot resources but:
-ecological constraints leaves not that abundant
-social constraints- infanticide in large groups.
what different forms female sociality
-kinbond
-non kin bond
-solitary
why live in kin bonded group
help relatives still get to pass on some genetics
what does intergroup and between group competition cause
the type of social hierarchy a group has
what phylogeny constrain view if species live in groups
current species influnced by ancestors and decedents
-limit evolutionary traits
-species not independent data points
define predatation
any consumption of a organism
what are different stratagies for hunting
-pursue
-chase
-ambush
what are the stages of hunting
1) search
2)detect
3) attack
4)capture
5)consume
whats predator prey arm race
adaptions trying to keep one up predator/prey
red queen hypothesis
prey adapts then predator adapts to keep up = overal match each other no one at advantage
when red queen hypothesis end
extinction
diminish prey level= switch to something else
why prey ahead red queen hypothesis?
-more costly to be wrong
-faster reproduction time- adaption acumalate quicker
-prey switching- predators adapt to lots of differnt prey
whats the economics of prey choice
choosing prey thats easy to get vs what get most energy from = balance
when would animal go for smaller prey
if larger prey is more costly to search for
whats ‘search image’
have imaje what prey looks like = no what to look for= zone out noise
When are species more likely to take risks?
when they are close to starvation
why are species more likly take risk starving
if go consistant food patch no for certain not enough food = die
What risks do the prey weigh up when getting food
-risk of starvation
-risk of predatation
what are different trade ofs animals weigh up when foraging?
- food patches
-own internal state
-risk of being eaten
What is the dilution effect
liklyhood one individual being eaten by chosen predator decreases with group size
what risk of too large groups and predators
easier to spot= more attacks
whats ‘selfish herd’
put other individuals between you and the predator
how do animals distrubute themselves ni group
close together- more space between indivual = more space predator attacked
what different wild meat compared to domestic
larger protein to fat ratio
what behavoural stratagies avoid being eaten
flee
hide
fight
habotat choive
what landscapes of fear
predators choose their home ranges to avoid being near predators
How to the Vermont Monkeys warn predators
different alarm calls for different species
and other species recognise these calls
what problem to large groups
too much competition for resources
why have males in group
more predators= more males = help with defense
why live in social groups to avoid predators
-dilution
-selfish herd
-cooperative defence
-confusion
what problem with knowledge on hunting and chimpanzees
all knowledge comes from 4 sites in Africa
how large to chimpanzee hunt
up to 20kg
what is chimpanzees prefered prey
red colombus monkeys
what gender main hunters in chimpanzees
males
what pressure chimps put on food
unsustainable- hunt till extinction
do chimpazees hunt energy
they seem to hunt more when in an energy surplus
what are theories why hunt
-nutrition
-trade goods
-acesss reliablity other males
what is the meat scrap hypothesis
eat meat gain nutrients help gain extra fitness advantages
what are key questions you can ask when studying animal behavour
-how does it work
-how does it develop
how did it evolve
what are the steps of research
-research
-hypothesis
-predictions
what are research steps
1) behavoural research
2)have a problem worth adressing
3) decide what data you need to collect
why do prelimanry research
-get ideas seeing animal in person
-watch and think
-see anything happen not described
whats a ethogram
inventorry of behavours clearly defined and codes
what key features of ethnogram catogries
-suffecient to answer question
-precisely defined
-independent and homegnous
-specific q and species
-coded
-mutually exlusive
-exhastive
what normal issues with ethnograms
-things not expect
-to broad
-lump things together
what must ethogram allow you to do when collecting data
-quick, efficient, accurate
key points must think about when desighning research
-make sure answer interesting
-find way to test research
-record what you have found
what are the key measures of behavour
-latency
-frequency
-duration
-intensity
define latency
time from event to behavour
define frequency
occurences per unit time
define duration
length of occurrence (total/mean)
how to measure intensty
qualitative orby frequency duration
what are key types of data for measuring primate behavour
-ratio data
-interval data
-ordinal data
-nominal data
whats ratio data
-meaningful difference time to zero
eg use, bought, duration
whats interval data
meaningful differences but no zero
e.g temp
what ordinal data
ordinal catogires (rank/scale)
eg dominance rank
what nominal data
catogies (no ordering)
e.g sex , age
what issue collecting really detailed data
-harder to collect
0pay less attention to surrounding context
what focal animal sample
-sequence
-duration
write down continous stream behavour against time codes
what focal behavour sample
-duration
-sequece
rare behaviour
whats occurance sample
-frequency
-scan
what ab litbitum sampling
-descriptive
-unconstrained
negative video sampling
-take time analyse and trascribe
very flat cant see what happening around corner
What’s the analytical strategy for primate behaviour
-clean and organise
- summarise
-explore
-test hypothesis
role of cleaning and organising data
-sheets to spread sheets
-don’t need to be all in one place
-organise east to look
- check for errors in data
How can I summarise data
-averages
-proportions
-composite variables
what are examples of composite variables
- re catogring
0indeces
what are negaitve rank horachy indeces
-summarises interactions over time so
-assumes stability dominance
-assumes stability in rank
-doesn’t distinguish intensity
whats davids score rank and hirarchy
- organise matrix winners and losers
-create ordinal rank
whats Elo ranking
-model how dominace individual site consequence of each interaction
benefits of elo rank
-dynamic- continual ranking
-dyadic- winners and losers
-cardinal
-scale intensities
define cardinal number
how many of a thing
what ate negative elo ranking
-takes a long time to sort out the rank individuals
use diversity index behavour
use index other studies e.g shannon weaver look how divers grooming index is
how to test hypothesis
-use correct stats/models
-check assumptions
-graph results
whats a model
statistical repreesntation of an analysis
what’s a test
how well a model tests data
what issue stat test and behavour
often sample size very small
whats issue with altruism
why would suffer cost to give another benefit
kin slelction theory for alturism
if individuals help sister mother offspring also benefit as genes will be passed on
what is hamiltons rule
altruistic behaviours will be favoured by selection if costs less than benefits discounted by coefficient of relatedness between actor and recipient
what is inclusive fitness
direct fitness (own offspring) + indirect fitness (fitness get from helping another)
when do females engage in costly behaviour of alarm calling?
more when close relatives are near
when do females engage in costly behavour of cooperative defence
when helping kin
is alturism just mutulism
-alturism only occur if both benefit
how most food sharing occur chimpanxee
-harras indivdal 4-5% give up food
reason no such thing alturism
-just mutulism
-only give up something if coheresed
-recipicocity
what recipicoty
only give up what individual will get in return
example recipicosity in vampire bats
- regurgitate blood, help others
Who do vampire bats have the most blood with?
-those with high associetations (roost together)
-kin
tit-for-tat stratagy
respond way the last individaul has responded
stag hunt and altursim
individuals will work together if they gain more out of it than if they act alone
what are the main models for cooperation
-kin selection
-recipirocal alturism
-stag hunt
-parcelling
-raise the stakes
-biological market theory
what is parcelling
give behavour in fixed amounts not everyting they need to see if it is retunred
why do impalas parcel grooming?
can’t groom at the same time
What can influence parcelling
presence of bystanders
why bystanders influece parcelling
see if someone else more likly to cooperate
if bystanders who most liklely to stop grooming interactions in primates
the groomer
wahts raise the stakes
start test waters slowly increase time of grooming
what happened grooming interactions after conflict primates
-interactions decreased
-start raising the stakes
whats biological market theory
-supply and demand partner choice
-keep track interaction history
-value on different services
what trader in BMT
classes of animals
wat goods and services BMT
interactions
what currency BMT
value of interactions
what are the indirect costs group living
-coordination
-travel time
what are the direct costs group living
-conspisnous
-disease risk
-comp for recources
-harrasment
do primates have optimum group sizes in nature
no often larger than optimum
why live in groups
benefits help pass on genes
define relationships
quality content and pattening of interactions between individuals over time
what characteristics of relationships animals
-investements
-value
-security
-compatibility
deine compatibility relationship
general tenor, social interactions, temperament, partners and shared history, social exchange
what are different types of relationships
-frequency
-diversity
-symmetry
-tenor
-tensionsss
-predictability
-stability
how are dyadic relationships structured
-kinship
-experience
-reciprocity
-availiability
what are benefits grooming
-parasite removal
-stress reduction
-social bonds
waht function grooming social bonds
-build cooperative relationships trust and commitment
-high commitment = reduce freeloaders
what is social bond theory
affilatative, trust based relationships (built on recoprical exchamges) platform for coalitions nad to build trust , = buffer the cost of group living
when do prmates help each other fight
not social bonds only help if think can win
how do relationships benefit primates
-increase reproduction sucess
-increase fitness
-high infant survival
-live longer = mroe babies
what social index
way to look at social interactions in numerical way - use measuring grooming interactions
relationships in baboons
many week interactions with a few strong interactions
do daughters interact aunt
only if the mother is present
What female relationships, like the chacma baboons
most relationships mothers and daughters
what reconciliation
allows peaceful interactions
relationship repair
group cohesion
was social bonds importnat relationships barbra maquaques
- Some evidence suggests social bonds repaired relationships quicker after a relationship, other factors also at play, like kin
BMT relationships
supply and demand impact traders behavour and shape relationships
what are interaction BMT
-trades services
-tolerance
-acess to food
-food
-acess to infant
-mates
do primates groom up the hirarchy?
groom with adjacent ranks
up but not the very top
what is tit for tat aproach
uses cognition rather than rule idividual value across time
do monkeys have social relationships?
evidence suggest no
relationships as trade
grooming male and females
supply of goods
eg for sex
how chacma baboons grooming acess for infants
-if less babies groom more to gain acess to infants
if lots of baboons present rates of grooming goes down
who grooms most in chimps
males
what behavours fit better into market theory than social bond theory
-mutual grooming , when not reciprical trade for services
-male grooming females
-meat sharing
males with relationships overtoppling and killing most dominant chimp
how are males dimorphic
-larger
-more body mass
-different behavior
-different colour
what species difference dimorphism
konkeys and apes -large amont
-Lemurs and langurs are variable, some but also some none
what is rensch’s rule
in groups of related species sexual size dimorphism more prounounced in larger species
why does dimorphism exist
-intra-sexual selection
-sexual selection
why does dimorphism exist - intra-sexual selection
individualsl within same sex those more sucessful inherit traits, contest, scrambles, endurance rivalry
why inter sexual selection causes dimorphism
mate choice, behavour one sex influeces the behavour other sex
when is more intense fighting expected
-more male presence mating time
-fewer females
-longer interbirth intervals
-shorter periods female sexual recptivity
what operational sex ratio
number of females available relative to number of males
how does operational sex ratio effect sexual dimorphism
higher operational sex ratio= higher sexual dimorphism
why have large canines
-canine weapon
-fighting of predators
-fighting with other males
corelation canine body size in haplorhines
body size and canine size is correlated
how can males become bigger than females
grow faster
grow for longer
what selection pressure could be acting females size
-be smaller reach sexial maturity younger age- start giving birth ealuer= have extra infant in life time
what evidence females smaller than meant to be
overscaling- brain size and canine size larger than expected for an animal of their size
what is a reproductive stratagy
mating + parenting
what part reproductive stratagy do males spend most time on
mating
what part of reproductive stratagy do females spend most time on
parenting
what are different mating strategies
-solitary
-monogymy
-polyandry
-polygymy
polyandry
female many males
polygmymy
male many females
what chalanges polygmy
lots of pressure male have to defend
-feeding comp forces males to be apart from females
-and have ot fend attacks other males
what reality gibbon mating stratagy
groupin gmonogomy 75%
some polyandres
some polygny
mating monagamy 12%
wonder to border groups and try and mate with females
are gibbons territorial
no 63.7% overlap
defend rescorce patches, but dont establish territory.
why do gibbons duet
Theory: females are testing males for quality
gibbons, when are males more likely to share females
large home range
low quality
what effects if spectral tarsier is monogamous
resource supply- distribution of sleeping trees
what scenarios polygmy typical stratagy
-females in small stable groups
-long interbirth intervals = low operational sex ratio
-male-male comp
-males ability to dominate
when is monogomy common stratagy
over disperserd recources
solitary = need to protect
high risk infanticide and predation
male care required
when do species need male parental care
when offspring large- mother couldn’t meet energy need on own
how do male geladas take control male bands
-inherit
-steal
-lead away females
what benefits and negatives takeover mate stratagy
:) - more females , earier start reproduction
:( short tenure, injury costs
is take over or follow-and lead away stratagy best
over a life time both lead to same amount of offspring
= both adaptive stratagy
why is large body mass common polygmy
need large to fight to monopolise females
what dominace stratagy do most priamtes follow
Try and get to the highest rank as quickly as possible
what benefits for males to build coalitions
Help maintain dominance rank for longer
what adaptions males if females promiscous
-larger testes
sperm more mitochondria
sperm faster swim speeds
what male directed stratagies mating
agression
mate guarding
what male-female-directed strategies for mating
grooming- firendship/trading
aggression- herding/ sexual coercion
what is the pre-ovulatary period
when eostrogen surge coming
peak period for matin sucess
are all monkey menstrual cycles the smae
no
old world siminar to humans
new world shorteer
how to baboons show they are ovulating
genetial swelling
what are female mating stratagies
-receptivity
-proceptivity
define receptivity
willing to mate
define proceptivity
engage behaviour encourage mating
what might females be looking for in a mate
-best genes
-good genes- strongest
-diversity- different HMC diversity immune response
good farthers- paternal care, infant protection
acess to recources
should females share males
yes , if sharing means acess to more recources that out weighs the cost of sharing with females
what benefits mulimales mating
-more genetic diversity offspring
-males compete to breed with the strongest
what is reproductive supression in marmasets
when mothers present daughters will not breed
what could be casing the blocking fertilisation in female marmosets
-hormones- pheromeones (smell) blocking
behaviour- social aggression stopping
gelada how can social agression harm mothers
more stressed
increase cortisol
10% decrease reproduction sucess over a lifetime
define parental investment
investement current offspring increase its survival at cost parent ability invest subsequent offspring
example parental investement
mothers feeding babies milk
why large primate milk and humas dilute compared other species
produce long time would take to much energy need to eat to much to offset costs high energy milk
why feeding time geladas higher expect relative age infant
need more energy because dry season so less nutrient food
baboons how do mothers ofset poor energy dry season
rely on energy reserves (fat0
what can effect mothers feeding time
-low tempretures- cold need to eat more
-vigilance- rate predatation, not worth extra feeding if will be eaten
do parents produce 1:1 sex ratio
no seems change ration depending facotrs
eg high liklet child reach top rank
likly = males unlikly = females
high do high rank maquakes produce females
need lots female kin to maintain their social standing , dominance rank
define sexual cohersion
-use of force or threat by male towards a female increase liklyhood mate with that male compared to another at costs to her
what direct cohersion
forcing to mate
what indirect cohersion
make it more likly mate with them
- eg mate guarding
how direct cohersion
-intimidation
-harassment
-agression directly results in mating
-infanticide
how males indirect cohersion
-herding
-punishment
-sequestration
define sequestration (mating)
male control female so unable to come in contact with another male
what are two different stratagies male orangutan mating
-bigger- territorial, life on ground, use power
-Smaller, sneaky chase with trees, no contact with larger males
do oraguntans used force or cooperative mating
no clear patterns between different morphs
is agresion sucessful chimp mating
yes uncreased sex from victoms
does agression harm females
yes stress levels increase
injury
what may trigger infanticide lions
-unfimilar odur
-default - kill any young not them
what benefits infanticide lions
speed eusturous females start cycling 9 months compared 24 - more chance and time for having your babies and time for them to get large enough to survive
other explinations infanticide not evolutionary advantage
-social pathology
-byproduct male agression- pumped up so kill anything
when is infanticide the best economic stratagy?
interbirth interval reduced to the point greater probability next baby will be theirs
-still beneficial if male makes a mistake
what kind of species is infanticide more common?
species’ long lactation to the gestation period
what are all the hypothesis for male agression chimps
- sexual selection
-reduce rival coalitions
-byproduct male aggression - predation
-resource defence
are female (chimps) aware of risk infanticide
y- male increase dominance females with young babies avoid him
when does most infantacide occur chimps
withs 1 month baby
what are the female counter stratagies for infanticide
-male protector
-consfuse paternity
-cut your losses
why female live with agressive male
live in shadow , befit from their agressivness nothing come near
what bruce effect
when a change male aborts pregnancy, there is no point carrying through to full term
what other theries infantacide than sexual cohersion
-cannabolism
-recource compition
-reduce future rivals
